Postoperative delirium in oral and maxillofacial surgery: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative delirium (POD) in the oral and maxillofacial settings has gained more attention in recent decades. Due to advances in medical technology, treatment possibilities have expanded treatment for elderly and frail patients. This scoping review explores the correlation between POD and oral and maxillofacial surgery, summarizing screening and management protocols and identifying risk factors in this surgical field. METHODS: This review follows the Scoping Review extension of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA-ScR). A comprehensive literature search was performed using multiple databases, focusing on articles published from 2002 to 2023 that discuss delirium in oral and maxillofacial surgery settings. The review was registered beforehand in the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/r2ebc ). RESULTS: From the initial 644 articles, 68 met the inclusion criteria. These studies highlighted the significant heterogeneity in POD diagnosis methods. The review identifies multiple risk factors across the preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative phases that influence the occurrence of POD. Significant and independent risk factors in multiple regression analysis were highlighted, creating a clinical prediction list for the occurrence of POD. CONCLUSION: It is crucial to preoperatively identify patients at risk for POD and actively modify these risks throughout the patient's hospital stay. Implementing nonpharmacological preventive measures for at-risk patients is recommended to decrease the incidence of POD. Future research should focus on creating standardized specialty-specific protocols incorporating validated assessment tools and addressing the full spectrum of risk factors associated with POD.

Does heart rate variability using the Newborn Infant Parasympathetic Evaluation index identify postsurgical pain levels and emergence delirium in toddlers? A prospective observational study.

PURPOSE: Children recovering from anesthesia commonly experience early postoperative negative behaviour, caused by pain and emergence delirium. Differentiating the two is challenging in young children. Perioperative pain influences the heart rate variability-derived Newborn Infant Parasympathetic Evaluation (NIPE) index and may also affect emergence delirium. We sought to investigate whether the perioperative NIPE index can discriminate between mild, moderate, or severe pain levels and can detect emergence delirium. METHODS: This prospective observational study enrolled children aged three years or younger undergoing elective adenotonsillectomy, tonsillectomy, or adenoidectomy. The NIPE index, the Faces, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability (FLACC) score, and the Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium (PAED) score were recorded in the postanesthesia care unit (PACU). The primary aim was to investigate the relationship between the postoperative NIPE index and postoperative pain severity. The secondary aims were to evaluate the association between the NIPE index and emergence delirium (PAED ≥ 10) and its delirium-specific (ED-I) and pain-specific (ED-II) components. RESULTS: Sixty-nine children were recruited. In the PACU, the mean (standard deviation [SD]) NIPE values in children experiencing moderate and severe pain were 50 (12) and 49 (14), respectively. These values were significantly lower than the mean (SD) value of 64 (13) observed in children with mild pain (mean difference moderate vs no/mild pain, -14; 95% confidence interval [CI], -17 to -11; P < 0.001, and mean difference severe vs no/mild pain, -17; 95% CI, -20 to -14; P < 0.001, respectively). The NIPE index was significantly lower in children experiencing pain-specific ED-II (mean [SD] NIPE instantaneous [NIPEi] for ED-II 49 [10] vs no ED-II 55 [13]; mean difference, -6; 95% CI, -11 to -2; P = 0.009). The NIPE index was unable to detect emergence delirium (mean [SD] NIPEi for ED, 54 [15] vs no ED, 51 [10]; mean difference, 3; 95% CI, -2 to 8; P = 0.23) or the delirium-specific component ED-I (mean [SD] NIPEi for ED-I, 55 [15] vs no ED-I, 51 [11]; mean difference, 4; 95% CI, 0 to 8; P = 0.06). CONCLUSION: The NIPE index can identify moderate and severe postoperative pain after adenotonsillectomy but not emergence delirium in children aged three years and younger. This discrimination can be valuable in the early postoperative phase when the differentiation between pain and emergence delirium is difficult. STUDY REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov ( NCT04909060 ); first submitted 26 May 2021.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: Les enfants qui se remettent d'une anesthésie font fréquemment preuve d'un comportement négatif en début de période postopératoire. Ce comportement est causé par la douleur et le délire d'émergence, mais il est difficile de les distinguer chez les jeunes enfants. La douleur périopératoire a un impact sur l'indice d'évaluation parasympathique du nouveau-né et du nourrisson (NIPE) dérivé de la variabilité de la fréquence cardiaque et peut également affecter le délire d'émergence. Nous avons cherché à déterminer si l'indice NIPE périopératoire permettait de différencier des niveaux de douleur légers, modérés ou sévères et de détecter le délire d'émergence. MéTHODE: Cette étude observationnelle prospective a recruté des enfants de trois ans ou moins ayant bénéficié d'une adéno-amygdalectomie, d'une amygdalectomie ou d'une adénoïdectomie non urgente. L'indice NIPE, le score FLACC (Faces, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability) et le score PAED (Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium) ont été enregistrés en salle de réveil. L'objectif principal était d'étudier la relation entre l'indice NIPE postopératoire et la sévérité de la douleur postopératoire. Les objectifs secondaires étaient d'évaluer l'association entre l'indice NIPE et le délire d'émergence (PAED ≥ 10) et ses composantes spécifiques au délire (ED-I) et à la douleur (ED-II). RéSULTATS: Nous avons recruté soixante-neuf enfants. En salle de réveil, les valeurs NIPE moyennes (écart type [ET]) chez les enfants souffrant de douleurs modérées et sévères étaient respectivement de 50 (12) et de 49 (14). Ces valeurs étaient significativement inférieures à la valeur moyenne (ET) de 64 (13) observée chez les enfants présentant une douleur légère (différence moyenne modérée vs pas de douleur ou douleur légère, −14; intervalle de confiance [IC] à 95 %, −17 à −11; P < 0,001, et différence moyenne entre douleur sévère vs pas de douleur ou douleur légère, −17; IC 95 %, −20 à −14; P < 0,001, respectivement). L'indice NIPE était significativement plus faible chez les enfants présentant un ED-II spécifique à la douleur (moyenne [ET] NIPE instantanée [NIPEi] pour ED-II, 49 [10] vs pas de ED-II, 55 [13]; différence moyenne, −6; IC 95 %, −11 à −2; P = 0,009). L'indice NIPE n'a pas été en mesure de détecter le délire d'émergence (NIPEi moyen [ET] pour le délire d'émergence, 54 [15] vs pas de délire d'émergence, 51 [10]; différence moyenne, 3; IC 95 %, −2 à 8; P = 0,23) ou la composante spécifique au délire de l'ED-I (NIPEi moyen [ET] pour ED-I, 55 [15] vs pas d'ED-I, 51 [11]; différence moyenne, 4; IC 95 %, 0 à 8; P = 0,06). CONCLUSION: L'indice NIPE permet d'identifier une douleur postopératoire modérée et sévère après une adéno-amygdalectomie mais pas le délire d'émergence chez les enfants de trois ans et moins. Cette discrimination peut être utile dans la phase postopératoire précoce lorsqu'il est difficile de différencier la douleur et le délire d'émergence. ENREGISTREMENT DE L'éTUDE: ClinicalTrials.gov ( NCT04909060 ); première soumission le 26 mai 2021.

Development and validation of a new drug-focused predictive risk score for postoperative delirium in orthopaedic and trauma surgery patients.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative delirium (POD) is the most common complication following surgery in elderly patients. During pharmacist-led medication reconciliation (PhMR), a predictive risk score considering delirium risk-increasing drugs and other available risk factors could help to identify risk patients. METHODS: Orthopaedic and trauma surgery patients aged ≥ 18 years with PhMR were included in a retrospective observational single-centre study 03/2022-10/2022. The study cohort was randomly split into a development and a validation cohort (6:4 ratio). POD was assessed through the 4 A's test (4AT), delirium diagnosis, and chart review. Potential risk factors available at PhMR were tested via univariable analysis. Significant variables were added to a multivariable logistic regression model. Based on the regression coefficients, a risk score for POD including delirium risk-increasing drugs (DRD score) was established. RESULTS: POD occurred in 42/328 (12.8%) and 30/218 (13.8%) patients in the development and validation cohorts, respectively. Of the seven evaluated risk factors, four were ultimately tested in a multivariable logistic regression model. The final DRD score included age (66-75 years, 2 points; > 75 years, 3 points), renal impairment (eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73m2, 1 point), anticholinergic burden (ACB-score ≥ 3, 1 point), and delirium risk-increasing drugs (n ≥ 2; 2 points). Patients with ≥ 4 points were classified as having a high risk for POD. The areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve of the risk score model were 0.89 and 0.81 for the development and the validation cohorts, respectively. CONCLUSION: The DRD score is a predictive risk score assessable during PhMR and can identify patients at risk for POD. Specific preventive measures concerning drug therapy safety and non-pharmacological actions should be implemented for identified risk patients.

[Updated ESAIC guidelines on postoperative delirium in adults]. / Aktualisierte ESAIC-Leitlinie zum postoperativen Delir beim Erwachsenen.

The updated ESAIC guideline on postoperative delirium (POD) comprises a total of 13 recommendations, including five with the recommendation grade "strong": 1.) The assessment of preoperative POD risk factors, 2.) the optimisation of the preoperative condition, 3.) the discussion of prevention strategies, 4) the implementation of a non-pharmacological multicomponent intervention in patients at risk of POD and 5.) the risk-benefit assessment of the prophylactic administration of dexmedetomidine. The latter applies in particular due to the partly contradictory data situation and different areas of application (cardiac surgery versus non-cardiac surgery patients). Index-based EEG monitoring of the depth of anaesthesia is also recommended, whereby other parameters such as burst suppression and density spectral array should also be included. If non-pharmacological measures fail, POD should be treated with haloperidol. In contrast, the use of benzodiazepines is not recommended.

Scoring systems, expert assessment, and identification of risk factors for the emergence of delirium in paediatric patients: Prospective cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Emergence delirium (ED) is a transient irritative and dissociative state that arises after the cessation of anaesthesia in patients who do not respond to calming measures. There are many risk factors for ED, but the exact cause and underlying mechanism have not been determined because the definition of ED is still unclear in consensus. This study aims to determine ED incidence, identify ED risk factors and external validation of Watcha, Cravero and expert assessment to Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium (PAED) scoring system in ED prediction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study is a prospective cohort study on 79 paediatrics who underwent elective surgery with general anaesthesia. Parameter measures include the incidence of ED, ED risk factors, and the relationship between PAED, Watcha, Cravero score and expert assessment. The ED risk factor was analysed using univariate and multivariate analysis. The relationship between PAED, Watcha, Cravero score, and expert assessment was determined using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. RESULTS: The incidence of ED was 22.8%. All parameters examined in this study showed p < 0.05. Watcha's scoring correlates with the PAED scoring and shows the highest discrimination ability with AUC 0.741 and p < 0.05. CONCLUSION: The incidence of ED in paediatrics is relatively high. Compared to others, Watcha score are more reliable for ED prediction. However, some demographic and perioperative factors are not the risk factor of ED.

Regional anaesthesia via parasternal catheters inserted preoperatively and postoperative delirium after cardiac surgery: A prospective unrandomised clinical trial.

VISUAL ABSTRACT: http://links.lww.com/EJA/A927.

The Association of Preoperative Diabetes With Postoperative Delirium in Older Patients Undergoing Major Orthopedic Surgery: A Prospective Matched Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative delirium (POD) is a common form of postoperative brain dysfunction, especially in the elderly. However, its risk factors remain largely to be determined. This study aimed to investigate whether (1) preoperative diabetes is associated with POD after elective orthopedic surgery and (2) intraoperative frontal alpha power is a mediator of the association between preoperative diabetes and POD. METHODS: This was a prospective matched cohort study of patients aged 60 years or more, with a preoperative diabetes who underwent elective orthopedic surgery. Nondiabetic patients were matched 1:1 to diabetic patients in terms of age, sex, and type of surgery. Primary outcome was occurrence of POD, assessed using the 3-minute Diagnostic Confusion Assessment Method (3D-CAM) once daily from 6 pm to 8 pm during the postoperative days 1-7 or until discharge. Secondary outcome was the severity of POD which was assessed for all participants using the short form of the CAM-Severity. Frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded starting before induction of anesthesia and lasting until discharge from the operating room. Intraoperative alpha power was calculated using multitaper spectral analyses. Mediation analysis was used to estimate the proportion of the association between preoperative diabetes and POD that could be explained by intraoperative alpha power. RESULTS: A total of 138 pairs of eligible patients successfully matched 1:1. After enrollment, 6 patients in the diabetes group and 4 patients in the nondiabetes group were excluded due to unavailability of raw EEG data. The final analysis included 132 participants with preoperative diabetes and 134 participants without preoperative diabetes, with a median age of 68 years and 72.6% of patients were female. The incidence of POD was 16.7% (22/132) in patients with preoperative diabetes vs 6.0% (8/134) in patients without preoperative diabetes. Preoperative diabetes was associated with increased odds of POD after adjustment of age, sex, body mass index, education level, hypertension, arrhythmia, coronary heart disease, and history of stroke (odds ratio, 3.2; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.4-8.0; P = .009). The intraoperative alpha power accounted for an estimated 20% (95% CI, 2.6-60%; P = .021) of the association between diabetes and POD. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that preoperative diabetes is associated with an increased risk of POD in older patients undergoing major orthopedic surgery, and that low intraoperative alpha power partially mediates such association.

Association of sleep quality on the night of operative day with postoperative delirium in elderly patients: A prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Sleep disturbances in the peri-operative period have been associated with adverse outcomes, including postoperative delirium (POD). However, research on sleep quality during the immediate postoperative period is limited. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the association between sleep quality on the night of the operative day assessed using the Sleep Quality Numeric Rating Scale (SQ-NRS), and the incidence of POD in a large cohort of surgical patients. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study. SETTING: A tertiary hospital in China. PATIENTS: This study enrolled patients aged 65 years or older undergoing elective surgery under general anaesthesia. The participants were categorised into the sleep disturbance and no sleep disturbance groups according to their operative night SQ-NRS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was delirium incidence, whereas the secondary outcomes included acute kidney injury, stroke, pulmonary infection, cardiovascular complications and all-cause mortality within 1 year postoperatively. RESULTS: In total, 3072 patients were included in the analysis of this study. Among them, 791 (25.72%) experienced sleep disturbances on the night of operative day. Patients in the sleep disturbance group had a significantly higher risk of developing POD (adjusted OR 1.43, 95% CI 1.11 to 1.82, P  = 0.005). Subgroup analysis revealed that age 65-75 years; male sex; ASA III and IV; haemoglobin more than 12 g l -1 ; intra-operative hypotension; surgical duration more than 120 min; and education 9 years or less were significantly associated with POD. No interaction was observed between the subgroups. No significant differences were observed in the secondary outcomes, such as acute kidney injury, stroke, pulmonary infection, cardiovascular complications and all-cause mortality within 1 year postoperatively. CONCLUSIONS: The poor subjective sleep quality on the night of operative day was independently associated with increased POD risk, especially in certain subpopulations. Optimising peri-operative sleep may reduce POD. Further research should investigate potential mechanisms and causal relationships. TRIAL REGISTRY: chictr.org.cn: ChiCTR1900028545.

Lower alpha frequency of intraoperative frontal EEG is associated with postoperative delirium: A secondary propensity-matched analysis.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative delirium (POD) is a serious complication of surgery, especially in the elderly patient population. It has been proposed that decreasing the amount of anesthetics by titrating to an EEG index will lower POD rate, but clear evidence is missing. A strong age-dependent negative correlation has been reported between the peak oscillatory frequency of alpha waves and end-tidal anesthetic concentration, with older patients generating slower alpha frequencies. We hypothesized, that slower alpha oscillations are associated with a higher rate of POD. METHOD: Retrospective analysis of patients` data from a prospective observational study in cardiac surgical patients approved by the Bernese Ethics committee. Frontal EEG was recorded during Isoflurane effect-site concentrations of 0.7 to 0.8 and peak alpha frequency was measured at highest power between 6 and 17 Hz. Delirium was assessed by chart review. Demographic and clinical characteristics were compared between POD and non-POD groups. Selection bias was addressed using nearest neighbor propensity score matching (PSM) for best balance. This incorporated 18 variables, whereas patients with missing variable information or without an alpha oscillation were excluded. RESULT: Of the 1072 patients in the original study, 828 were included, 73 with POD, 755 without. PSM allowed 328 patients into the final analysis, 67 with, 261 without POD. Before PSM, 8 variables were significantly different between POD and non-POD groups, none thereafter. Mean peak alpha frequency was significantly lower in the POD in contrast to non-POD group before and after matching (7.9 vs 8.9 Hz, 7.9 vs 8.8 Hz respectively, SD 1.3, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Intraoperative slower frontal peak alpha frequency is independently associated with POD after cardiac surgery and may be a simple intraoperative neurophysiological marker of a vulnerable brain for POD. Further studies are needed to investigate if there is a causal link between alpha frequency and POD.

Update of the European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine evidence-based and consensus-based guideline on postoperative delirium in adult patients.

Postoperative delirium (POD) remains a common, dangerous and resource-consuming adverse event but is often preventable. The whole peri-operative team can play a key role in its management. This update to the 2017 ESAIC Guideline on the prevention of POD is evidence-based and consensus-based and considers the literature between 01 April 2015, and 28 February 2022. The search terms of the broad literature search were identical to those used in the first version of the guideline published in 2017. POD was defined in accordance with the DSM-5 criteria. POD had to be measured with a validated POD screening tool, at least once per day for at least 3 days starting in the recovery room or postanaesthesia care unit on the day of surgery or, at latest, on postoperative day 1. Recent literature confirmed the pathogenic role of surgery-induced inflammation, and this concept reinforces the positive role of multicomponent strategies aimed to reduce the surgical stress response. Although some putative precipitating risk factors are not modifiable (length of surgery, surgical site), others (such as depth of anaesthesia, appropriate analgesia and haemodynamic stability) are under the control of the anaesthesiologists. Multicomponent preoperative, intra-operative and postoperative preventive measures showed potential to reduce the incidence and duration of POD, confirming the pivotal role of a comprehensive and team-based approach to improve patients' clinical and functional status.

Preoperative electroencephalographic alpha-power changes with eyes opening are associated with postoperative attention impairment and inattention-related delirium severity.

BACKGROUND: In the eyes-closed, awake condition, EEG oscillatory power in the alpha band (7-13 Hz) dominates human spectral activity. With eyes open, however, EEG alpha power substantially decreases. Less alpha attenuation with eyes opening has been associated with inattention; thus, we analysed whether reduced preoperative alpha attenuation with eyes opening is associated with postoperative inattention, a delirium-defining feature. METHODS: Preoperative awake 32-channel EEG was recorded with eyes open and eyes closed in 71 non-neurological, noncardiac surgery patients aged ≥ 60 years. Inattention and other delirium features were assessed before surgery and twice daily after surgery until discharge. Eyes-opening EEG alpha-attenuation magnitude was analysed for associations with postoperative inattention, primarily, and with delirium severity, secondarily, using multivariate age- and Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE)-adjusted logistic and proportional-odds regression analyses. RESULTS: Preoperative alpha attenuation with eyes opening was inversely associated with postoperative inattention (odds ratio [OR] 0.73, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.57, 0.94; P=0.038). Sensitivity analyses showed an inverse relationship between alpha-attenuation magnitude and inattention chronicity, defined as 'never', 'newly', or 'chronically' inattentive (OR 0.76, 95% CI: 0.62, 0.93; P=0.019). In addition, preoperative alpha-attenuation magnitude was inversely associated with postoperative delirium severity (OR 0.79, 95% CI: 0.65, 0.95; P=0.040), predominantly as a result of the inattention feature. CONCLUSIONS: Preoperative awake, resting, EEG alpha attenuation with eyes opening might represent a neural biomarker for risk of postoperative attentional impairment. Further, eyes-opening alpha attenuation could provide insight into the neural mechanisms underlying postoperative inattention risk.

Diagnostic accuracy of the pediatric CAM-ICU, pre-school CAM-ICU, Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium and Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium for detecting delirium in the pediatric intensive care unit: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Delirium is a frequent complication of critical illness, affecting 34% of children admitted to pediatric intensive care units. The commonly used tools for detecting delirium in the pediatric intensive care unit include the Pediatric Confusion Assessment Method for the intensive care unit (ICU, pCAM-ICU), Preschool Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (psCAM-ICU), Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium and the Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium. DATA SOURCES: We searched four electronic databases for relevant articles from inception to March 1, 2023. STUDY SELECTION: All full-text observational studies examining the sensitivity and specificity of the four tools for screening delirium in the pediatric intensive care units were included. DATA EXTRACTION: Two researchers independently identified articles, extracted data, and retrieved the diagnostic accuracy parameters of the pediatric CAM-ICU, pre-school CAM-ICU, Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium, and Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium relative to standard references. A bivariate diagnostic statistical analysis with a random-effects model was performed. DATA SYNTHESIS: Four, five, three and seven studies on the pediatric CAM-ICU, pre-school CAM-ICU, Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium, and Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium, respectively, were identified. Due to the limited number of Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium articles included, no pooled diagnostic accuracy was produced. The pooled sensitivity was 0.73, 0.84, and 0.95 for the pediatric CAM-ICU, pre-school CAM-ICU, and Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium, respectively, whereas the pooled specificity was 0.98, 0.90, and 0.81, respectively. The Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium had greater sensitivity compared to both the pediatric CAM-ICU and pre-school CAM-ICU (both p = 0.04) and lower specificity than the pediatric CAM-ICU did (p < 0.001). Age, sample size, and mechanical ventilation use were significant moderators of the specificity of the pediatric CAM-ICU (p < 0.001, <0.001, and = 0.001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that the Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium is a more dependable instrument than the pediatric CAM-ICU and pre-school CAM-ICU for detecting pediatric intensive care delirium occurrence. More studies on the Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium are warranted. IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE: Healthcare providers are suggested adopting the Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium into daily routine for the early detection of delirium in pediatric intensive care units.

The clinical value of the Duke Anesthesia Resistance Scale in predicting postoperative delirium after hip fracture surgery: a retrospective study.

Aim: This study aims to investigate the clinical value of the Duke Anesthesia Resistance Scale (DARS) in predicting postoperative delirium (POD) after hip fracture surgery. Methods: A retrospective study was conducted. Clinical data were collected from the patients who had hip fracture and underwent elective total hip arthroplasty in Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University between January 2022 and June 2023. The Consciousness Fuzzy Assessment Scale was used to evaluate the occurrence of POD on postoperative day 3 (POD 3). The enrolled patients were divided into the POD group (n = 26) and the non-POD group (n = 125). Baseline characteristics, surgical data, postoperative information, and laboratory test results were collected. DARS scores were calculated using the minimum alveolar concentration, end-tidal concentration average (ETAC), and bispectral index (BIS). Multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to recognize the independent risk factors for POD after hip fracture surgery. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was plotted to evaluate the value of DARS in POD prediction. Results: The average age of POD group was significantly higher, comparing to non-POD group (P < 0.05). DARS scores were statistically lower in the POD group compared to non-POD group (P < 0.05). Multivariate logistic regression analysis found that age and DARS scores were factors impacting post-operative delirium occurrence after hip fracture surgery (P < 0.05). ROC showed that the area under the curve for DARS in predicting POD after hip fracture surgery was 0.929 (95% CI [0.861-0.997]). The optimal cutoff value was 30. The sensitivity was 95.45%, while the specificity was 84.09%. Conclusion: DARS score demonstrates good predictive value in hip fracture patients and is feasible in clinical practice, making it suitable for clinical application and promotion.

Protocol for a randomized controlled trial to reduce pediatric anesthesia emergence delirium by titration of sevoflurane anesthesia using brain function monitoring.

BACKGROUND: Emergence agitation or emergence delirium is a common complication of unknown etiology in pediatric anesthesia. Pediatric anesthesia emergence delirium (PAED) has been reported most commonly in younger children and may occur in about 30% of children up to 5-6 years old. Exposure to anesthetic agents may contribute to PAED, and we hypothesized that a management strategy to minimize exposure to volatile anesthetics may reduce PAED. Electroencephalography (EEG) signatures captured and displayed by brain function monitors during anesthesia change with concentration of sevoflurane and level of unconsciousness, and these EEG signatures may be used to inform titration of anesthetics. METHODS: A single-center, parallel-group, two-arm, superiority trial with a 1:1 allocation ratio will be performed to compare the incidence of PAED following standard sevoflurane anesthesia (maintained at 1.0MAC) and EEG-guided anesthesia (minimum concentration to sustain surgical anesthesia as determined by monitoring of EEG signatures). Participants between 1 and 6 years of age undergoing surgical procedures involving minimal postoperative pain will be randomly assigned to receive standard (n = 90) or EEG-guided (n = 90) anesthesia. PAED score will be assessed by a blinded observer in the PACU on arrival and after 5, 10, 15, and 30 min. DISCUSSION: Anesthesia management with proactive use of brain function monitoring is expected to reduce exposure to sevoflurane without compromising surgical anesthesia. We expect this reduced exposure should help prevent PAED. Routinely administering what may be considered standard levels of anesthetic such as 1.0 MAC sevoflurane may be excessive and potentially associated with unfavorable sequelae such as PAED. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Japan Registry of Clinical Trials (jRCT) jRCTs032210248. Prospectively registered on 17 August 2021.

Cognitive Deficits in Executive and Language Functions Predict Postoperative Delirium.

OBJECTIVES: Postoperative delirium (POD) remains the most common complication in older adults, with cognitive impairment being the main risk factor. Patients with mild cognitive impairment, in particular, have much to lose from delirium; despite this, their cognitive impairment might be clinically overlooked. Understanding which cognitive domains are particularly predictive in this regard may improve the sensitivity of preoperative testing and allow for a more targeted application of resource-intensive measures to prevent delirium in the perioperative period. The authors conducted this study with the aim of identifying the most indicative cognitive domains. DESIGN: A secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial. SETTING: At a single center, the University Medical Centre Hamburg in Hamburg, Germany. PARTICIPANTS: Patients ≥60 years without major neurocognitive disorders (dementia, Mini-Mental State Examination score ≤23) scheduled for cardiovascular surgery. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Preoperative neuropsychologic testing and delirium screening were performed twice daily until postoperative day 5. A multiple logistic regression model was applied to determine the predictive ability of test performances for the development of delirium. RESULTS: A total of 541 patients were included in the analysis; the delirium rate was 15.6%. After controlling for confounders, only low performance within the Trail Making Test B/A (odds ratio [OR] = 1.32; 95% CI: 1.05-1.66) and letter fluency (OR = 0.66; 95% CI: 0.45-0.96) predicted a particularly high risk for delirium development. The discriminative ability of the final multiple logistic regression model to predict POD had an area under the curve of 0.786. CONCLUSIONS: Impairment in the cognitive domains of executive function and language skills associated with memory, inhibition, and access speed seem to be particularly associated with the development of delirium after surgery in adults ≥65 years of age without apparent preoperative neurocognitive impairment.

Incidence change of postoperative delirium after implementation of processed electroencephalography monitoring during surgery: a retrospective evaluation study.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative delirium (POD) is a common complication in the elderly, which is associated with poor outcomes after surgery. Recognized as predisposing factors for POD, anesthetic exposure and burst suppression during general anesthesia can be minimized with intraoperative processed electroencephalography (pEEG) monitoring. In this study, we aimed to evaluate whether implementation of intraoperative pEEG-guided anesthesia is associated with incidence change of POD. METHODS: In this retrospective evaluation study, we analyzed intravenous patient-controlled analgesia (IVPCA) dataset from 2013 to 2017. There were 7425 patients using IVPCA after a noncardiac procedure under general anesthesia. Patients incapable of operating the device independently, such as cognitive dysfunction or prolonged sedation, were declined and not involved in the dataset. After excluding patients who opted out within three days (N = 110) and those with missing data (N = 24), 7318 eligible participants were enrolled. Intraoperative pEEG has been implemented since July 2015. Participants having surgery after this time point had intraoperative pEEG applied before induction until full recovery. All related staff had been trained in the application of pEEG-guided anesthesia and the assessment of POD. Patients were screened twice daily for POD within 3 days after surgery by staff in the pain management team. In the first part of this study, we compared the incidence of POD and its trend from 2013 January-2015 July with 2015 July-2017 December. In the second part, we estimated odds ratios of risk factors for POD using multivariable logistic regression in case-control setting. RESULTS: The incidence of POD decreased from 1.18 to 0.41% after the administration of intraoperative pEEG. For the age group ≧ 75 years, POD incidence decreased from 5.1 to 1.56%. Further analysis showed that patients with pEEG-guided anesthesia were associated with a lower odd of POD (aOR 0.33; 95% CI 0.18-0.60) than those without after adjusting for other covariates. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of intraoperative pEEG was associated with a lower incidence of POD within 3 days after surgery, particularly in the elderly. Intraoperative pEEG might be reasonably considered as part of the strategy to prevent POD in the elder population. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Not applicable.

Pro-Con Debate: Electroencephalography-Guided Anesthesia for Reducing Postoperative Delirium.

Postoperative delirium (POD) has significant implications on morbidity, mortality, and health care expenditures. Monitoring electroencephalography (EEG) to adjust anesthetic management has gained interest as a strategy to mitigate POD. In this Pro-Con commentary article, the pro side supports the use of EEG to reduce POD, citing an empiric reduction in POD with processed EEG (pEEG)-guided general anesthesia found in several studies and recent meta-analysis. The Electroencephalography Guidance of Anesthesia to Alleviate Geriatric Syndromes (ENGAGES) trial is the exception to this, and issues with methods and achieved depths are discussed. Meanwhile, the Con side advocates that the use of EEG to reduce POD is not yet certain, citing that there is a lack of evidence that associations between anesthetic depth and POD represent causal relationships. The Con side also contends that the ideal EEG signatures to guide anesthetic titration are currently unknown, and the potential benefits of reduced anesthesia levels may be outweighed by the risks of potentially insufficient anesthetic administration. As the public health burden of POD increases, anesthesia clinicians will be tasked to consider interventions to mitigate risk such as EEG. This Pro-Con debate will provide 2 perspectives on the evidence and rationales for using EEG to mitigate POD.