Preventing farnesylation of the dynein adaptor Spindly contributes to the mitotic defects caused by farnesyltransferase inhibitors.

The clinical interest in farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs) makes it important to understand how these compounds affect cellular processes involving farnesylated proteins. Mitotic abnormalities observed after treatment with FTIs have so far been attributed to defects in the farnesylation of the outer kinetochore proteins CENP-E and CENP-F, which are involved in chromosome congression and spindle assembly checkpoint signaling. Here we identify the cytoplasmic dynein adaptor Spindly as an additional component of the outer kinetochore that is modified by farnesyltransferase (FTase). We show that farnesylation of Spindly is essential for its localization, and thus for the proper localization of dynein and its cofactor dynactin, to prometaphase kinetochores and that Spindly kinetochore recruitment is more severely affected by FTase inhibition than kinetochore recruitment of CENP-E and CENP-F. Molecular replacement experiments show that both Spindly and CENP-E farnesylation are required for efficient chromosome congression. The identification of Spindly as a new mitotic substrate of FTase provides insight into the causes of the mitotic phenotypes observed with FTase inhibitors.

The calcium response of mouse sperm flagella: role of calcium ions in the regulation of dynein activity.

Triton X-100-extracted mouse sperm treated with 0.1 mM ATP and 1.0 mM Ca(2+) exhibit an extremely coiled configuration that has been previously described as a curlicue. Sperm in the curlicue configuration exhibit a monotonically curved flagellum where the shear angle of the flagellum can reach a value as high as 14 radians at the flagellar tip. We utilized this strong reaction to Ca(2+) to elucidate the mechanism of the calcium response. The disintegration of the axoneme was facilitated by the use of an extraction procedure that removed the mitochondrial sheath without eliminating the calcium response. The order of emergence of the doublet microtubule outer dense fiber complexes was observed in the presence and absence of added Ca(2+). The identity of the emergent elements was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. Ca(2+) altered the order of emergence of internal axoneme elements to favor the appearance of the elements of the 9-1-2 side of the axoneme. These elements are propelled baseward by the action of dyneins on doublets 1 and 2. It was also possible to establish that the motive force for maintaining the curlicue configuration is dynein-based. The curlicues were relaxed by inhibition with 50 µM NaVO(3) and were reestablished by disinhibiting the vanadate with 2.5 mM catechol.

Small peptide inhibitors disrupt a high-affinity interaction between cytoplasmic dynein and a viral cargo protein.

Several viruses target the microtubular motor system in early stages of the viral life cycle. African swine fever virus (ASFV) protein p54 hijacks the microtubule-dependent transport by interaction with a dynein light chain (DYNLL1/DLC8). This was shown to be a high-affinity interaction, and the residues gradually disappearing were mapped on DLC8 to define a putative p54 binding surface by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The potential of short peptides targeting the binding domain to disrupt this high-affinity protein-protein interaction was assayed, and a short peptide sequence was shown to bind and compete with viral protein binding to dynein. Given the complexity and number of proteins involved in cellular transport, the prevention of this viral-DLC8 interaction might not be relevant for successful viral infection. Thus, we tested the capacity of these peptides to interfere with viral infection by disrupting dynein interaction with viral p54. Using this approach, we report on short peptides that inhibit viral growth.

Calcium-dependent flagellar motility activation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in response to mechanical agitation.

Flagellar beating in Chlamydomonas was found to be activated by mechanical stimulation. Immediately after a wild-type cell suspension was vortexed, the average swimming velocity of cells increased from 130 mum/second to 150 mum/second, due to an elevation of flagellar beat frequency from approximately 60 Hz to approximately 70 Hz without detectable change in the flagellar waveforms. This response required outer arm dynein. Treatment with EGTA, Ca(2+)-channel blockers, or mechanosensitive-channel blockers inhibited it. In demembranated and reactivated cell models, a modest increase in Ca(2+) concentration elevated the axonemal beat frequency. These data indicate that the mechanical agitation increases beat frequency because it causes Ca(2+) influx into flagella, which then activates outer arm dynein.

Effects of bone morphogenetic protein 4 on differentiation of embryonic stem cells into myosin VIIa-positive cells.

CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that myosin VIIa-positive cells are generated from embryonic stem cells (ESCs) co-cultured with PA6 cells; however, bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) may not be a key molecule for induction of myosin VIIa-positive cells from the ESCs. BACKGROUND: ESCs have been considered as a basis for cell therapy in a range of organs, because of their potential for self-renewal and pluripotency. Co-culture with PA6 stromal cells can induce differentiation of ESCs into various types of ectodermal cells including sensory progenitors. BMP4 plays an essential role in the development of sensory hair cells in the inner ear. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We examined effects of BMP4 on differentiation of ESCs into the hair cell immunophenotype. BMP4 was supplemented at different time points to ESCs co-cultured on PA6 stromal cells. The ESCs were then collected and examined for the expression of myosin VIIa, a hair cell marker, and betaIII-tubulin, a neural marker. The expression of myosin VIIa and betaIII-tubulin was identified. RESULTS: Quantitative assessments revealed that exogenous BMP4 has significant effects on the expression of betaIII-tubulin, but not of myosin VIIa.

Nordihydroguaiaretic acid affects multiple dynein-dynactin functions in interphase and mitotic cells.

Nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), a well known lipoxygenase inhibitor, actually has pleiotropic effects on cells, which include cell proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, and chemotaxis. We and others have shown previously that this compound causes Golgi disassembly by an unknown mechanism. In this study, we show that, in parallel with Golgi disassembly, NDGA induces the accumulation of the microtubule minus-end-directed motor dynein-dynactin complex at the centrosome, where microtubules minus-ends lie. Concomitant with this accumulation, dynein-dynactin-interacting proteins, such as ZW10 and EB1, were also redistributed to the centrosomal region. In cells where microtubules were depolymerized by nocodazole, NDGA promoted the formation of filaments consisting of dynein-dynactin and its interacting proteins, suggesting that it stimulates the association of these proteins in an ordered, not random, manner. Loss of dynactin function abolished not only NDGA-induced redistribution in intact cells but also filament formation in nocodazole-treated cells. The latter finding implies that dynactin is a key molecule for the association between dynein-dynactin and its interacting proteins. In mitotic cells, NDGA induced robust accumulation of dyneindynactin and its interacting proteins at the spindle poles. These results taken together suggest that NDGA perturbs membrane traffic by affecting the function of the microtubule motor dynein-dynactin complex and its auxiliary proteins. To our knowledge, NDGA is the first case of a reagent that can modulate dynein-dynactin-related processes.

7-Ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis. Involvement of several pro-apoptotic but also anti-apoptotic calcium-dependent transduction pathways.

Oxysterols, and particularly 7-ketocholesterol, appear to be strongly involved in the physiopathology of atherosclerosis. These molecules are suspected to be cytotoxic to the cells of the vascular wall and monocytes/macrophages, particularly by inducing apoptosis. Previous studies have demonstrated that 7-ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis is triggered by a sustained increase of cytosolic-free Ca2+, which elicits the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis by activation of the calcium-dependent phosphatase calcineurin, leading to dephosphorylation of the 'BH3 only' protein BAD. However, thorough study of the results suggests that other pathways are implicated in 7-ketocholesterol-induced cytotoxicity. In this study, we demonstrate the involvement of two other calcium-dependent pathways during 7-ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis. The activation of the MEK-->ERK pathway by the calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase PYK 2, a survival pathway which delays apoptosis as shown by the use of the MEK inhibitor U0126, and a pathway involving another pro-apoptotic BH3 only protein, Bim. Indeed, 7-ketocholesterol treatment of human monocytic THP-1 cells induces the release of Bim-LC8 from the microtubule-associated dynein motor complex, and its association with Bcl-2. Therefore, it appears that 7-ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis is a complex phenomenon resulting from calcium-dependent activation of several pro-apoptotic pathways and also one survival pathway.

Dynein and kinesin share an overlapping microtubule-binding site.

Dyneins and kinesins move in opposite directions on microtubules. The question of how the same-track microtubules are able to support movement in two directions remains unanswered due to the absence of details on dynein-microtubule interactions. To address this issue, we studied dynein-microtubule interactions using the tip of the microtubule-binding stalk, the dynein stalk head (DSH), which directly interacts with microtubules upon receiving conformational change from the ATPase domain. Biochemical and cryo-electron microscopic studies revealed that DSH bound to tubulin dimers with a periodicity of 80 A, corresponding to the step size of dyneins. The DSH molecule was observed as a globular corn grain-like shape that bound the same region as kinesin. Biochemical crosslinking experiments and image analyses of the DSH-kinesin head-microtubule complex revealed competition between DSH and the kinesin head for microtubule binding. Our results demonstrate that dynein and kinesin share an overlapping microtubule-binding site, and imply that binding at this site has an essential role for these motor proteins.

Properties of the full-length heavy chains of Tetrahymena ciliary outer arm dynein separated by urea treatment.

An important challenge is to understand the functional specialization of dynein heavy chains. The ciliary outer arm dynein from Tetrahymena thermophila is a heterotrimer of three heavy chains, called alpha, beta and gamma. In order to dissect the contributions of the individual heavy chains, we used controlled urea treatment to dissociate Tetrahymena outer arm dynein into a 19S beta/gamma dimer and a 14S alpha heavy chain. The three heavy chains remained full-length and retained MgATPase activity. The beta/gamma dimer bound microtubules in an ATP-sensitive fashion. The isolated alpha heavy chain also bound microtubules, but this binding was not reversed by ATP. The 19S beta/gamma dimer and the 14S alpha heavy chain could be reconstituted into 22S dynein. The intact 22S dynein, the 19S beta/gamma dimer, and the reconstituted dynein all produced microtubule gliding motility. In contrast, the separated alpha heavy chain did not produce movement under a variety of conditions. The intact 22S dynein produced movement that was discontinuous and slower than the movement produced by the 19S dimer. We conclude that the three heavy chains of Tetrahymena outer arm dynein are functionally specialized. The alpha heavy chain may be responsible for the structural binding of dynein to the outer doublet A-tubule and/or the positioning of the beta/gamma motor domains near the surface of the microtubule track.

Effect of tamoxifen treatment on motility related proteins in rat spermatozoa.

The study was undertaken to identify the effect of tamoxifen on the expression and phosphorylation of motility related proteins in the adult male rats. For this purpose, tamoxifen, at a dose of 0.4 mg/kg/day, was administered per os to the male rats for a period of 60 days. Cauda sperms, epididymal fluid and tissue proteins were extracted and analyzed by electrophoresis. Testicular tissues fixed in paraffin wax were analyzed for changes in the immunoexpression of interstitial tissue estrogen receptor alpha. Phosphorylation pattern of sperm proteins was studied in vitro after incubating with 32P-ATP. The expression of dynein and tubulin in sperms, and estrogen receptors in epididymis were analyzed by immunoblotting. Tamoxifen treatment did not alter the protein profile in the cauda sperms, epididymal fluid and tissues. Endogenous phosphorylation pattern of sperm proteins in vitro was also not affected, though it is possible that 32P incorporation observed in the 66 kDa protein could be estrogen receptor. Expression of sperm dynein, tubulin and epididymal estrogen receptors was unchanged as was the expression of testicular estrogen receptors. It was concluded that tamoxifen administration alters forward motility pattern characteristic of cauda sperm without any demonstrable change in the expression or activation of motility related proteins and the phosphorylation of the sperm estrogen receptors may be involved in the regulation of sperm motility.

Redistribution of motor proteins by Cytochalasin J treatment.

In this study we extend our analysis of the effect of Cytochalasin J (CJ) on mitotic and interphase cells by the use of immunocytochemical techniques to localize antigens to anti-beta-tubulin, anti-dynein heavy chain (HC), anti-dynein intermediate chain (IC), and anti-kinesin antibodies following CJ treatment. Anti-dynein IC and HC staining of CJ treated cells showed a significant reduction in anti-dynein staining in the nuclear region of interphase cells. Monolayer cultures of PtK(1)cells treated with 10 microg/ml CJ for 10 min showed a significant reduction in pixel luminosity of fluorescence staining using anti-dynein IC and HC antibodies (P<0.05). Cytochalasin J treatment reorganized anti-dynein staining from a cytoplasmic punctate staining with greatest intensity in the perinuclear region, to a more uniform staining throughout the cytoplasm.

Role of mitotic motors, dynein and kinesin, in the induction of abnormal centrosome integrity and multipolar spindles in cultured V79 cells exposed to dimethylarsinic acid.

The role of microtubule-based motors in the induction of abnormal centrosome integrity by dimethylarsinic acid (DMAA) was investigated with the use of monastrol, a specific inhibitor of mitotic kinesin, and vanadate, an inhibitor of dynein ATPase. Cytoplasmic dynein co-localized with multiple foci of gamma-tubulin in mitotic cells arrested by DMAA. Disruption of microtubules caused dispersion of dynein while multiple foci of gamma-tubulin were coalesced to a single dot. Vanadate also caused dispersion of dynein, which had been co-localized with multiple foci of gamma-tubulin by DMAA, without affecting spindle organization. However, the dispersion of dynein did not prohibit the induction of abnormal centrosome integrity by DMAA. Inhibition of mitotic kinesin by monastrol resulted in monoastral cells with non-migrated centrosomes in the cell center. Monastrol, when applied to mitotic cells with abnormal centrosome integrity, rapidly reduced the incidence of cells with the centrosome abnormality. Moreover, monastrol completely inhibited reorganization of abnormal centrosomes that had been coalesced to a single dot by microtubule disruption. These results suggest that abnormal centrosome integrity caused by DMAA is not simply due to dispersion of fragments of microtubule-organizing centers, but is dependent on the action of kinesin. In addition, the results suggest that kinesin plays a role not only in the induction of mitotic centrosome abnormality, but also in maintenance.

Measurement of the force produced by an intact bull sperm flagellum in isometric arrest and estimation of the dynein stall force.

The force generated by a detergent-extracted reactivated bull sperm flagellum during an isometric stall was measured with a force-calibrated glass microprobe. The average isometric stall force from 48 individual measurements was 2.5 +/- 0.7 x 10(-5) dyne (2.5 +/- 0.7 x 10(-10) N). The force measurements were obtained by positioning a calibrated microprobe in the beat path of sperm cells that were stuck by their heads to a glass microscope slide. The average position of the contact point of the flagellum with the probe was 15 microm from the head-tail junction. This average lever arm length multiplied by the measured force yields an estimate of the active bending moment (torque) of 3.9 x 10(-8) dyne x cm (3.9 x 10(-15) N x m). The force was sustained and was for the most part uniform, despite the fact that the flagellum beyond the point of contact with the probe usually continued beating. It appears that the dynein motors in the basal portion of the flagellum continue to pull in an isometric stall for as long as the motion of the flagellum is blocked. If dynein motors in the flagellum distal to the contact point with the probe were contributing force to the displacement of the probe, then the flagellar segment immediately past the point of contact would have to show a net curvature in the direction of the probe displacement. No such curvature bias was observed in the R-bend arrests, and only a small positive curvature bias was measured in the P-bend arrests. Our analysis of the data suggests that more than 90% of the sustained force component is generated by the part of the flagellum between the probe and the flagellar base. Based on this premise, the isometric stall force per dynein head is estimated to be 5.0 x 10(-7) dyne (5 pN). This equals approximately 1.0 x 10(-6) dyne (10 pN) per intact dynein arm. These values are close to the isometric stall force of isolated dynein. This suggests that all of the dynein heads between the base and the probe, on the active side of the axoneme, are contributing to the force exerted against the probe.

Effect of Alzheimer's brain extracts on dynein immunoreactivity in PC12 cells.

The neurodegenerative process in Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been suggested to occur as a consequence of microtubule disruption and subsequent loss of intracellular transport. Structural microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) have been investigated for their role in the etiology of AD, but dynein, a force-producing MAP which mediates intracellular transport, has not been examined. In this report, dynein (MAP1C) immunoreactivity in AD brain tissue homogenates was observed increased 3.7-fold compared with control brain homogenate preparations. Similarly, NGF-differentiated PC12 cells cultured in the presence of soluble extracts prepared from AD brain tissue homogenates, exhibited an approximate 15-fold increase in dynein immunoreactivity compared to that of control brain tissue extracts. In contrast, AD clarified extracts had little effect upon "kinesin-like" protein immunoreactivity increased (approximately 2-fold); whereas, tau immunoreactivity was observed to be moderately increased (5-fold) over that of control brain extract treated PC12 cells. Chemical dephosphorylation and alkaline phosphatase treatment of AD extract-treated PC12 cell lysate prior to Western blotting resulted in complete loss of immunoreactivity, suggesting the dynein being monitored is a phosphorylated isoform. Furthermore, treatment of clarified brain tissue extracts with trypsin and (NH4)2SO4 suggests the endogenous elements giving rise to increased PC12 cell dynein intermediate chain immunoreactivity to be proteinaceous in nature. The observed increase in dynein intermediate-chain dynein immunoreactivity following exposure of neuronal cells to endogenous elements of AD brain may be reflective of dynein-microtubular array differences. Such an approach may be useful in assessing the effect of endogenous biomolecules on retrograde axonal transport in neuronal culture models.

Disruption of CENP antigen function perturbs dynein anchoring to the mitotic kinetochore.

Injection of purified autoantibodies against human centromeric proteins into HeLa cells during interphase disrupts the organization of the kinetochore and interferes with chromosomal movements during the subsequent mitosis even though the chromosomes retain the ability to bind microtubules. We have investigated the hypothesis that this phenotype arises from effects on cytoplasmic dynein, the microtubule motor protein. In previous experiments we found that introduction of anticentromere antibodies into cell nuclei during the G1- or S-phases causes a prometaphase-like arrest, while injections during G2-phase cause a metaphase arrest. We show here that, in both cases, the level of detectable cytoplasmic dynein at kinetochores is significantly decreased. In contrast, when injected cells were permitted to enter mitosis in the absence of microtubules (conditions where trilaminar kinetochores could be detected by electron microscopy), the intensity of dynein labeling on the kinetochores was identical to that seen in uninjected control cells exposed to colcemid. Therefore, the loss of dynein label on mitotic kinetochores was correlated both with the injection of anticentromere antibodies and with the presence of intact spindle microtubules. We suggest that the injection of anticentromere antibodies somehow weakens the association of dynein with the kinetochore, so that when microtubules are present, these motor molecules are pulled away from the kinetochores as they generate force. This model offers an explanation for the failure of chromosomes of injected cells to move normally in mitosis even though they have attached microtubules.

Effect of a dynein inhibitor on vasopressin action in toad urinary bladder.

1. The effect of the dynein inhibitor erythro-9-[3-(2-hydroxynonyl)] adenine (EHNA) on the osmotic water flow response to vasopressin or exogenous cAMP has been investigated in isolated toad urinary bladders. 2. Pretreatment with serosal EHNA had no effect on basal water flow, but inhibited the development and maintenance of the hydrosmotic response to vasopressin (20 mU ml-1) or 8-(4-parachlorophenylthio)-adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8 CPT-cAMP; 0.1 mM). 3. The inhibitory effect of EHNA on vasopressin-induced water flow was dose dependent. Inhibition occurred in the dose range in which EHNA inhibits the ATPase and motor activities of dynein in vitro. 4. EHNA also inhibited the maintenance of the high rate of water flow established by prior exposure to vasopressin. 5. The inhibitory effect of EHNA on the onset phase of the vasopressin response was attenuated after exposure of the tissue to the microtubule-disruptive drug nocodazole but was fully additive with that of cytochalasin B. 6. EHNA inhibited basal and vasopressin-stimulated transepithelial sodium transport. 7. The findings support the view that EHNA inhibits hormone-induced water flow through an action on a cytoplasmic dynein. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that dynein is involved in the microtubule-based delivery of water channel-containing vesicles to the apical membrane of the granular epithelial cells during both the onset and maintenance of the water permeability response to vasopressin.

Three-dimensional organization of rat hepatocyte cytoskeleton: relation to the asialoglycoprotein endocytosis pathway.

Analysis by confocal microscopy has revealed features of the microtubule network of rat hepatocytes in culture, establishing the three-dimensional disposition of the microtubule-based cytoskeleton, its relation to the actin-based cytoskeleton and to ligand-containing endosomes during receptor-mediated endocytosis and the alterations in its structure and disposition by the microtubule pertubant, Taxol. By co-localization studies, we have been able to demonstrate that the microtubules have a significant role in receptor-mediated endocytosis of asialoglycoproteins in this cell. Asialoorosomucoid-containing endosomes attach to widely spaced arrays of microtubules running under the baso-lateral surface of the hepatocytes 5-15 minutes after the initiation of endocytosis and then travel along microtubule paths to become concentrated with microtubules near the centrosome and at bile canaliculi after 30-60 minutes of receptor-mediated endocytosis. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is affected, but not abolished by Taxol, which inhibits the rate of asialoorosomucoid degradation at the same concentrations as those that disrupt microtubule and cytoplasmic dynein distribution, and that prevent the concentration of endosomes centrally. The results support suggestions that asialoorosomucoid-containing endosomes are captured by microtubules just below the actin layer at the cell periphery and these are actively transported centrally along microtubules, possibly by cytoplasmic dynein, so that the concentration of endosomes near the centrosome, and the subsequent efficient lysosomal degradation of ligand, are consequences of the confluence of microtubules in this region.

Mechanochemical aspects of axonemal dynein activity studied by in vitro microtubule translocation.

We have determined the relationship between microtubule length and translocation velocity from recordings of bovine brain microtubules translocating over a Paramecium 22S dynein substratum in an in vitro assay chamber. For comparison with untreated samples, the 22S dynein has been subjected to detergent and/or to pretreatments that induce phosphorylation of an associated 29 kDa light chain. Control and treated dyneins have been used at the same densities in the translocation assays. In any given condition, translocation velocity (v) shows an initial increase with microtubule length (L) and then reaches a plateau. This situation may be represented by a hyperbola of the general form v = aL/(L+b), which is formally analogous to the Briggs-Haldane relationship, which we have used to interpret our data. The results indicate that the maximum translocation velocity Vo(= a) is increased by pretreatment, whereas the length constant KL(= b), which corresponds to Km, does not change with pretreatment, implying that the mechanochemical properties of the pretreated dyneins differ from those of control dyneins. The conclusion that KL is constant for defined in vitro assays rules out the possibility that the velocity changes seen are caused by changes in geometry in the translocation assays or by the numbers of dyneins or dynein heads needed to produce maximal translocational velocity. From our analysis, we determine that f, the fraction of cycle time during which the dynein is in the force-generating state, is small--roughly 0.01, comparable to the f determined previously for heavy meromyosin. The practical limits of these mechanochemical changes imply that the maximum possible ciliary beat frequency is about 120 Hz, and that in the physiological range of 5-60 Hz, beat frequency could be controlled by varying the numbers of phosphorylated outer arm dyneins along an axonemal microtubule.

Extrusion of rotating microtubules on the dynein-track from a microtubule-dynein gamma-complex.

Applying a new in vitro motility assay system for microtubules and 22S dynein, we recently reported on an ATP-induced extrusion of microtubules from microtubule-dynein alpha- and beta-complexes [Mimori and Miki-Noumura, 1994: Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 27:180-191]. In the present study, we prepared a gamma-complex by copolymerizing porcine brain tubulin and Tetrahymena ciliary 22S dynein, and examined the ATP-induced microtubule movement from the gamma-complex. The extrusion process appeared quite similar to that of the beta-complex. The sliding velocity was 18.39 +/- 2.20 microns/sec, which was a value comparable to that of trypsin-digested flagellar axonemes [Yano and Miki-Noumura, 1980: J. Cell Sci. 44:169-186]. Higher velocity may be due to a densely arranged dynein-track with the same polarity, which was detached from the gamma-complex and absorbed in rows on a glass surface of the slide. Sometimes a free-floating microtubule in the perfusion chamber was observed riding and sliding on the dynein-track remaining on the slide after extrusion. Unexpectedly, we found that when the front part of the microtubule was fixed to a glass surface, a continuous sliding microtubule at the rear part on the dynein-track often transformed into a left-handed helix, and subsequently a twisted helix with several turns. The helix formation may be due to some rigidity in the microtubule and a right-handed torque component in the sliding force of 22S dynein. The addition of ATP may release some distortion accumulated in the complex structure during copolymerization of tubulin and 22S dynein, inducing reverse rotation of the microtubule.