Billing, coding, and practice management: a primer for today's reproductive medicine professional.

Despite years of recognition that many physicians are woefully unprepared to face challenges regarding the business of medicine, marginal progress has been made. In this piece, we aim to provide the contemporary reproductive medicine physician with an understanding of billing, coding, and, most importantly, cost containment for a typical fertility practice. It is critical for modern practices to not forego hard-earned revenue to insurance companies or not be aware of critical rules and regulations. While running a successful fertility practice requires good medical care, a profitable practice is necessary for overall long-term success. This article provides a brief history of medical insurance and billing, explains the process of updating billing codes, and reviews the revenue cycle, cost containment, and contract negotiations with insurance companies.

The Pioneer Schools of Occupation: Reflections for Current Practice.

The Pioneer Schools of Occupation: Can They Teach Us Anything Today? This study reviews the development of the pioneer schools of occupation and their curriculum or program design between 1906 and 1923. The purposes are to document the existence of the schools, to explore the issues in establishing the schools, and to compare and contrast concepts stated in early curriculum models with those in current models of practice. The dates were selected to examine ideas before the passage of the Minimum Standards for Courses of Training in Occupational Therapy by the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) outlining a consensus course of study.

The Virtues of Scientific Practice: MacIntyre, Virtue Ethics, and the Historiography of Science.

"Practice" has become a ubiquitous term in the history of science, and yet historians have not always reflected on its philosophical import and in particular on its potential connections with ethics. This essay draws on the work of the virtue ethicist Alasdair MacIntyre to develop a theory of "communal practices" and explore how such an approach can inform the history of science, including allegations about the corruption of science by wealth or power, consideration of scientific ethics or "moral economies," the role of values in science, the ethical distinctiveness (or not) of scientific vocations, and the relationship between history of science and the practice of science itself.

Flexibility or Inexactitude? The "Lab 60" at Karolinska Institutet: From Medical Disciplines towards the Modern Biomedical Complex.

In 1960, a new laboratory ("Lab 60") was built on the premises of Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm. This paper describes how the laboratory was envisioned. While planners and builders strove to optimise a generic laboratory, researchers argued for specialisation. The compromise was to enhance the reorganisation capability of the interior (flexibility) while simultaneously creating a "movable" institution consisting of researchers temporarily working in the laboratory for periods of three to five years, regardless of their disciplinary affiliation. Even though flexibility was not a novelty, the building succeeded as an organisational experiment and encouraged the abandonment of the model of one discipline, one professor, and one building in favour of a "movable" institution conducting temporary research. While the credibility of laboratories was established by their "placelessness" (anywhere), Lab 60 imitated multiple, heterogeneous sites (anything) in order to maintain credibility. As such, the lab embodied many sites between the disciplines of chemistry and medicine.

Health visiting and district nursing in Victorian Manchester; divergent and convergent vocations.

Community nursing and public health work provided many Victorian and Edwardian women in Britain with the opportunity of a career and professional training. Such work created contradictions, not least the tension between 'inherent' female skills and the role of learnt professionalism. This article discusses Manchester's neglected district nurses alongside the city's more well-studied health visiting scheme. Comparing these occupations in one city highlights continuities in origins and practice, but a clear divergence in terms of class and purpose. These differences provide historians with opportunities to reconsider the inherent tensions and varied identities of employed women in Victorian and Edwardian Britain.

[Dissemination of German medicine in Spain and Latin America: the "Revista Médica de Hamburgo" and the "Revista Médica Germano-Ibero-Americana" (1920-1933)]. / La "Revista Médica de Hamburgo" y la "Revista Médica Germano-Ibero-Americana": diseminación de la medicina Germánica en España y América Latina (1920-1933).

This article presents the development of the journals "Revista Médica de Hamburgo" and "Revista Médica Germano-Ibero-Americana," which were created to promote and disseminate the German science among the medical community in Latin America and Spain between the two World Wars. Shaken by the loss of Germany's colonies in Africa, the difficulties faced due to post-war economy, and the restrictions imposed by the armistice, the Germans sought to restore their cultural and scientific prestige through such initiative.

Traditional vocations and modern professions among Tamil Brahmans in colonial and post-colonial south India.

Since the nineteenth century, Tamil Brahmans have been very well represented in the educated professions, especially law and administration, medicine, engineering and nowadays, information technology. This is partly a continuation of the Brahmans' role as literate service people, owing to their traditions of education, learning and literacy, but the range of professions shows that any direct continuity is more apparent than real. Genealogical data are particularly used as evidence about changing patterns of employment, education and migration. Caste traditionalism was not a determining constraint, for Tamil Brahmans were predominant in medicine and engineering as well as law and administration in the colonial period, even though medicine is ritually polluting and engineering resembles low-status artisans' work. Crucially though, as modern, English-language, credential-based professions that are wellpaid and prestigious, law, medicine and engineering were and are all deemed eminently suitable for Tamil Brahmans, who typically regard their professional success as a sign of their caste superiority in the modern world. In reality, though, it is mainly a product of how their old social and cultural capital and their economic capital in land were transformed as they seized new educational and employment opportunities by flexibly deploying their traditional, inherited skills and advantages.

Florence Nightingale a Hundred Years on: who she was and what she was not.

This article reviews Florence Nightingale's work 100 years after her death, based on surviving writing compiled for The Collected Works of Florence Nightingale. Described are her founding of a new profession for women, based on patient care, her pioneering work in statistics and data analysis and her bold reform of the workhouse infirmaries. A section on historiography focuses on the negative impact of F. B. Smith's attack on Nightingale in 1982 and Monica Baly's progressively more negative interpretations from the 1970s to her death in 1998. Note is made of future research opportunities .

Desarrollo histórico de la enfermería / Historical development of nursing

La consolidación de la Enfermería como arte, disciplina y profesión está ligada a la evolución de la humanidad y las necesidades que han surgido en cada una de las etapas históricas en donde las mujeres siempre han ocupado un papel protagonista fundamental; son precisamente estas situaciones sociales las que han llevando a la enfermería a construir un cuerpo propio de conocimientos. Así, la historia de la disciplina se divide en dos etapas: la etapa premoderna y la etapa moderna; en las cuales se centralizan los antecedentes de la disciplina profesional; los actos históricos de la profesión han pasado desde los cuidados domésticos, religiosos y ligados al quehacer medico, hasta llegar al avance actual de la disciplina donde se consolidan los conocimientos propios de la profesión y su fin fundamental: el cuidado de las experiencias de salud y enfermedad de los seres humanos. En todo este proceso cabe destacar a dos mujeres que han dejado un legado importante en la conceptualización del ser y del quehacer profesional.

The consolidation of Nursing as an art, discipline and profession is linked to the evolution of humanity and the needs that have arisen in each of the stages of history where women have always occupied a central leading role. Precisely in these social situations that have led to the build up of nursing as a body of knowledge itself. The history of the discipline is divided into two stages: the pre-modern and modern stage, which are centralized in the history of professional discipline. The historical events of the profession have grown from domestic care, religious and linked to medical tasks, up to the current progress of the discipline which consolidates the expertise of the profession and its fundamental purpose: the care of health and illness experiences of human beings. Throughout this process, it is important to highlight two women who have left an important legacy in the conceptualization of self and the professional occupation.

The Doctor of Nursing Practice degree: lessons from the history of the professional doctorate in other health disciplines.

Despite the American Association of Colleges of Nursing's adoption of the Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) degree as the appropriate level of education for advanced practice, a number of controversies have persisted, including questions of timing, academic support, grandfathering, diffusion of nursing research, and economics. This article discusses the path to the professional doctorate in optometry, osteopathy, public health, pharmacy, physical therapy, audiology, chiropractic, and naturopathy. It reveals similar struggles to professionalism and the consensus drawn from doctoral development in these fields. It concludes with lessons for a path forward for the DNP.