Increased regulatory activity of intestinal innate lymphoid cells type 3 (ILC3) prevents experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis severity.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) induced in inbred rodents, i.e., genetically identical animals kept under identical environmental conditions, shows variable clinical outcomes. We investigated such variations of EAE in Dark Agouti rats immunized with spinal cord homogenate and identified four groups: lethal, severe, moderate, and mild, at day 28 post immunization. Higher numbers of CD4+ T cells, helper T cells type 1 (Th1) and 17 (Th17) in particular, were detected in the spinal cord of the severe group in comparison with the moderate group. In addition, increased proportion of Th1 and Th17 cells, and heightened levels of interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-6 were detected in the small intestine lamina propria of the severe group. A selective agonist of free fatty acid receptor type 2 (Ffar2) applied orally in the inductive phase of EAE shifted the distribution of the disease outcomes towards milder forms. This effect was paralleled with potentiation of intestinal innate lymphoid cells type 3 (ILC3) regulatory properties, and diminished Th1 and Th17 cell response in the lymph nodes draining the site of immunization. Our results suggest that different clinical outcomes in DA rats are under determinative influence of intestinal ILC3 activity during the inductive phase of EAE.

IFNγ and CTLA-4 Drive Hepatic CD4 T-Cell Tolerance and Protection From Autoimmunity in Mice.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The liver has a distinct capacity to induce immune tolerance to hepatic antigens. Although liver tolerance can be advantageous for preventing autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, it also can be detrimental by preventing immune surveillance of infected or malignant cells. Here, we investigated the immune mechanisms that establish hepatic tolerance. METHODS: Tolerance was investigated in C-reactive protein (CRP)-myelin basic protein (MBP) mice expressing the neuroantigen MBP in hepatocytes, providing profound resistance to MBP-induced neuroinflammation. Tolerance induction was studied after transfer of MBP-specific CD4 T cells into CRP-MBP mice, and tolerance mechanisms were tested using depleting or blocking antibodies. RESULTS: Although tolerant CRP-MBP mice display increased numbers of forkhead box P3+ regulatory T cells, we here found them not essential for the maintenance of hepatic tolerance. Instead, upon MBP recognition in the liver, MBP-specific T cells became activated to produce interferon (IFN)γ, which, in turn, induced local up-regulation of recruitment molecules, including Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand9 and its receptor C-X-C motif chemokine receptor3, facilitating endothelial translocation and redirection of MBP-specific T cells into the hepatic parenchyma. There, the translocated MBP-specific CD4 T cells partly converted into interleukin 10-producing type 1 regulatory T cells, and significantly up-regulated the expression of immune checkpoint molecules, notably cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4). Intriguingly, although liver tolerance was not affected by impairment of interleukin 10 signaling, concomitant blockade of IFNγ and CTLA-4 abrogated hepatic tolerance induction to MBP, resulting in neuroinflammatory autoimmune disease in these mice. CONCLUSIONS: IFNγ-mediated redirection of autoreactive CD4 T cells into the liver and up-regulation of checkpoint molecules, including CTLA-4, were essential for tolerance induction in the liver, hence representing a potential treatment target for boosting or preventing liver tolerance.

Naringenin confers protection against experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through modulating the gut-brain axis: A multiomics analysis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disease of the central nervous system that involves the immune system attacking the protective covering of nerve fibers. This disease can be influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. Evidence has highlighted the critical role of the intestinal microbiota in MS and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The composition of gut microflora is mainly determined by dietary components, which, in turn, modulate host homeostasis. A diet rich in naringenin at 0.5% can effectively mitigate the severity of EAE in mice. However, there is little direct data on the impact of naringenin at optimal doses on EAE development, as well as its intestinal microbiota and metabolites. Our study revealed that 2.0% naringenin resulted in the lowest clinical score and pathological changes in EAE mice, and altered the gene expression profiles associated with inflammation and immunity in spinal cord tissue. We then used untargeted metabolomics and 16S rRNA gene sequences to identify metabolites and intestinal microbiota, respectively. Naringenin supplementation enriched gut microbiota in EAE mice, including increasing the abundance of Paraprevotellaceae and Comamonadaceae, while decreasing the abundance of Deltaproteobacteria, RF39, and Desulfovibrionaceae. Furthermore, the changes in gut microbiota affected the production of metabolites in the feces and brain, suggesting a role in regulating the gut-brain axis. Finally, we conducted a fecal transplantation experiment to validate that gut microbiota partly mediates the effect of naringenin on EAE alleviation. In conclusion, naringenin has potential immunomodulatory effects that are influenced to some extent by the gut microbiome.

Investigating anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties of brivaracetam and lacosamide in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).

PURPOSE: Inflammation plays a role in drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE). We have previously reported an increased proportion of CD4 T cells displaying a pro-inflammatory profile in the peripheral blood of adults with DRE. Specific anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) exhibit immunomodulatory properties that could increase the risk of infections but also contribute to their beneficial impact on DRE and other neurological diseases. The impact of novel generation AEDs on the profile of immune cells and on neuroinflammatory processes remains unclear. METHODS: We compared the influence of brivaracetam and lacosamide on the activation of human and murine peripheral immune cells in vitro and in vivo in active experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a common mouse model of central nervous system inflammation. RESULTS: We found that brivaracetam and lacosamide at 2.5 µg/ml did not impair the survival and activation of human immune cells, but a higher dose of 25 µg/ml decreased mitogen-induced proliferation of CD8 T cells in vitro. Exposure to high doses of brivaracetam, and to a lesser extent lacosamide, reduced the proportion of CD25+ and CD107a+ CD8+ human T cells in vitro, and the frequency of CNS-infiltrating CD8+ T cells at EAE onset and CD11b+ myeloid cells at peak in vivo. Prophylactic administration of brivaracetam or lacosamide did not delay EAE onset but significantly improved the clinical course in the chronic phase of EAE compared to control. CONCLUSION: Novel generation AEDs do not impair the response to immunization with MOG peptide but improve the course of EAE, possibly through a reduction of neuroaxonal damage.

Tolerogenic Nanovaccine for Prevention and Treatment of Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

Herein, a tolerogenic nanovaccine is developed and tested on an animal model of multiple sclerosis. The nanovaccine is constructed to deliver the self-antigen, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) peptide, and dexamethasone on an abatacept-modified polydopamine core nanoparticle (AbaLDPN-MOG). AbaLDPN-MOG can target dendritic cells and undergo endocytosis followed by trafficking to lysosomes. AbaLDPN-MOG blocks the interaction between CD80/CD86 and CD28 in antigen-presenting cells and T cells, leading to decreased interferon gamma secretion. The subcutaneous administration of AbaLDPN-MOG to mice yields significant biodistribution to lymph nodes and, in experimental-autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model mice, increases the integrity of the myelin basic sheath and minimizes the infiltration of immune cells. EAE mice are treated with AbaLDPN-MOG before or after injection of the autoantigen, MOG. Preimmunization of AbaLDPN-MOG before the injection of MOG completely blocks the development of clinical symptoms. Early treatment with AbaLDPN-MOG at three days after injection of MOG also completely blocks the development of symptoms. Notably, treatment of EAE symptom-developed mice with AbaLDPN-MOG significantly alleviates the symptoms, indicating that the nanovaccine has therapeutic effects. Although AbaLDPN is used for MOG peptide delivery in the EAE model, the concept of AbaLDPN can be widely applied for the prevention and alleviation of other autoimmune diseases.

Evaluation of the immunoregulatory effect of Dicrocoelium dendriticum eggs on inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in EAE model.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an appropriate model for the study of the immunologic and pathologic mechanisms in multiple sclerosis (MS). According to the hygiene hypothesis, helminths can improve immunoregulation and have therapeutic effects on immune-mediated diseases. In this study, we used Dicrocoelium dendriticum (Dicrocoeliidae, Platyhelminthes) eggs for the evaluation of their prophylactic and treatment effects on EAE disease. D. dendriticum eggs were extracted. Female C57BL/6 mice were immunized with the specific antigen MOG35-55 , and then the egg extracts were utilized for prophylaxis and/or treatment. Clinical symptoms and other relevant parameters were assessed daily. The mRNA expression of transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß), interleukin-10 (IL-10), IL-6, IL-23 and IL-17 were assessed with a real-time polymerase chain reaction technique. Furthermore, secretion of TGF-ß and IL-17 cytokines were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Data indicated that clinical symptoms in prophylaxis and treatment groups were decreased significantly in comparison with the untreated control group (p < .001). Our results showed a significant decrease in IL-17, as well as an increase in TGF-ß cytokine in the treatment group compared to the EAE control group (p < .01). Furthermore, in the prophylaxis and treatment groups, the mRNA expression of disease-associated cytokines decreased and the mRNA expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokines increased. In this study, the D. dendriticum egg ameliorates the clinical symptoms of the EAE model through the modulation of related cytokines of Th17 and Treg cells. Therefore, using this parasite egg could be a new treatment for MS.

Transcranial direct current stimulation as a preventive treatment in multiple sclerosis? Preclinical evidence.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system, presenting with optic neuritis in about 20-30% of cases. Optic nerve demyelination, associated with delay of visual evoked potentials (VEPs), is also observed prior to motor signs in the preclinical MS model Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE). Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), inducing polarity-dependent changes in neuronal excitability, is widely used to promote neuroplasticity in several neurological disorders. However, its potential effects on inflammation and demyelination are largely unknown. We tested the effectiveness of a preventive, 5-day tDCS treatment started 3 days post-immunization, in reducing the severity of VEP delays observed in early EAE. In mice undergoing cathodal tDCS (n = 6/26 eyes) VEPs were significantly less delayed compared with eyes from EAE-Sham (n = 24/32 eyes) and EAE-Anodal (n = 22/32 eyes). Optic nerve immunohistochemistry revealed a significantly lower cell density of microglia/macrophages, and less axonal loss in EAE-Cathodal vs EAE-Sham and EAE-Anodal, while the percent demyelination with Luxol-fast blue staining was comparable among EAE groups. Considering the latter result, immunofluorescence paranodal staining was performed, revealing a significantly higher number of complete paranode domains in EAE-Cathodal, closer to healthy mice, compared with EAE-Sham and EAE-Anodal groups. These results were reflected by the negative correlation between the number of complete paranode domains and VEP latency increase with respect to pre-immunization. Finally, cathodal tDCS was associated with a lower number, closer to healthy, of single paranodes in contrast to EAE-Sham. The effects of cathodal stimulation in preventing VEPs delays and optic nerve myelin damage were already observed in the pre-motor onset EAE stage, and were associated with a lower density of inflammatory cells. These findings suggest that tDCS may exert an anti-inflammatory effect with potential therapeutic application to be further explored in autoimmune demyelinating diseases.

Comparative effectiveness of preventive treatment with dimethyl fumarate-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles and oral dimethyl fumarate in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Orally administered dimethyl fumarate (DMF) presents gastrointestinal adverse effects, such as pain and diarrhea, in addition to flushing and lymphopenia. OBJECTIVE: Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) with DMF were developed for subcutaneous administration. METHODS: DMF-incorporated SLNs and free DMF were tested in mice induced with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). RESULTS: Preventive treatment of free or incorporated DMF were able to reduce the EAE clinical scores, increase the weight of the animals, reduce the lesion area (demyelination and infiltration), reduce microglial fluorescence intensity and reduce the number of microglial cells and astrocytes, when compared to untreated EAE animals. Groups that received DMF had reduced numbers of T cells, B cells and natural killer (NK) cells in the blood, when compared to the non-induced group. CONCLUSIONS: DMF incorporated in SLNs was as effective as free DMF in reducing the clinical scores of the animals, but with reduced administrations when given subcutaneously. In addition, SLN-DMF preventive treatment partially prevented a reduction in the percentages of T and B cells, in the blood, when compared to preventive treatment with free DMF (oral), which suggests reduction of lymphopenia.

Dual peptide nanoparticle platform for enhanced antigen-specific immune tolerance for the treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Current therapeutic strategies for autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) are directed towards nonspecific immunosuppression, which has severe side effects. The induction of antigen-specific tolerance has become an ideal therapy for autoimmune diseases. In this study, we have constructed a dual peptide nanoparticle platform, including the antigen peptide of the primary signal and inhibitory peptide of the co-stimulatory signal, for T-cell activation and to trigger antigen-specific immune tolerance to treat experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a murine model for MS. The peptide LABL binding with ICAM-1 was encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles and the antigenic peptide MOG35-55-KKK was then covalently bonded to the surface of the PLGA nanoparticles. In this way, peptide-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (NPsLABL+MOG) were developed. When the dual peptide nanoparticles were administered intravenously either prophylactically or therapeutically to MOG35-55-immunized mice, it completely prevented the occurrence of EAE in the prophylactic therapy trial and decreased inflammatory cell infiltration and the demyelination of the nerve myelin in the spinal cord in both prophylactic and therapeutic trials. In therapeutic experiments especially, the dual peptide nanoparticles a showed stronger inhibitory effect on EAE than the MOG peptide nanoparticles alone. Mechanistically, the dual peptide nanoparticles reduced MHC II and the co-stimulatory molecule CD86 expression of dendritic cells (DCs) on the surface and induced abortive T-cell activation, which eventually led to a decreased infiltration of Th1 and Th17 cells in the central nervous system and showed antigen-specific immune tolerance. The dual peptide nanoparticles have great potential for the treatment of autoimmune diseases by inducing immune tolerance.

Tyrphostin A9 protects axons in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through activation of ERKs.

AIMS: Small molecule compound tyrphostin A9 (A9), an inhibitor of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptor, was previously reported by our group to stimulate extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (ERK1) and 2 (ERK2) in neuronal cells in a PDGF receptor-irrelevant manner. The study aimed to investigate whether A9 could protect axons in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through activation of ERKs. MAIN METHODS: A9 treatment on the protection on neurite outgrowth in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and primary substantia nigra neuron cultures from the neurotoxin MPP+ were analyzed. Then, clinical symptoms as well as ERK1/2 activation, axonal protection induction, and the abundance increases of the regeneration biomarker GAP-43 in the CNS in the relapsing-remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model were verified. KEY FINDINGS: A9 treatment could stimulate neurite outgrowth in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and protect primary substantia nigra neuron cultures from the neurotoxin MPP+. In the relapsing-remitting EAE model, oral administration of A9 successfully ameliorated clinical symptoms, activated ERK1/2, induced axonal protection, and increased the abundance of the regeneration biomarker GAP-43 in the CNS. Interestingly, gene deficiency of ERK1 or ERK2 disrupted the beneficial effects of A9 in MOG-35-55-induced EAE. SIGNIFICANCE: These results demonstrated that small molecule compounds that stimulate persistent ERK activation in vitro and in vivo may be useful in protective or restorative treatment for neurodegenerative diseases.

Cordycepin prevents and ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inhibiting leukocyte infiltration and reducing neuroinflammation.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neuroinflammatory autoimmune disease characterized by multifocal perivascular infiltration of immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS). Cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine), an adenosine analogue initially extracted from the fungus Cordyceps militarisa, is one of the candidates that has multiple actions. We investigated that cordycepin attenuated the activation of LPS-induced mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDCs) through the inhibition of the AKT, ERK, NFκB, and ROS pathways and impaired the migration of BMDCs through the downregulation of adhesion molecules and chemokine receptors in vitro. In experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, preventive treatment with cordycepin decreased the expression of trafficking factors in the CNS, inhibited the secretion of inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-17), and attenuated disease symptoms. A chemokine array indicated that cordycepin treatment reversed the high levels of CCL6, PARRES2, IL-16, CXCL10, and CCL12 in the brain and spinal cord of EAE mice, consistent with the RNA-seq data. Moreover, cordycepin suppressed the release of neuroinflammatory cytokines by activated microglial cells, macrophages, Th17 cells, Tc1 cells, and Th1 cells in vitro. Furthermore, cordycepin treatment exerted therapeutic effects on attenuating the disease severity in the early disease onset stage and late disease progression stage. Our study suggests that cordycepin treatment may not only prevent the occurrence of MS by inhibiting DC activation and migration but also potentially ameliorates the progression of MS by reducing neuroinflammation, which may provide insights into the development of new approaches for the treatment of MS.

Siponimod Inhibits the Formation of Meningeal Ectopic Lymphoid Tissue in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether the formation or retention of meningeal ectopic lymphoid tissue (mELT) can be inhibited by the sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1,5 modulator siponimod (BAF312) in a murine model of multiple sclerosis (MS). METHODS: A murine spontaneous chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, featuring meningeal inflammatory infiltrates resembling those in MS, was used. To prevent or treat EAE, siponimod was administered daily starting either before EAE onset or at peak of disease. The extent and cellular composition of mELT, the spinal cord parenchyma, and the spleen was assessed by histology and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Siponimod, when applied before disease onset, ameliorated EAE. This effect was also present, although less prominent, when treatment started at peak of disease. Treatment with siponimod resulted in a strong reduction of the extent of mELT in both treatment paradigms. Both B and T cells were diminished in the meningeal compartment. DISCUSSION: Beneficial effects on the disease course correlated with a reduction in mELT, suggesting that inhibition of mELT may be an additional mechanism of action of siponimod in the treatment of EAE. Further studies are needed to establish causality and confirm this observation in MS.

Nobiletin attenuates inflammation via modulating proinflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokine expressions in an autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model.

The aim of this study is to investigate the potential preventive and therapeutic effects of nobiletin by evaluating the expression of cytokines associated with inflammatory reactions in an autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model. A total of 60 male C57BL/6 mice aged between 8 and 10 weeks were used. Mice were divided into six groups (n = 10 mice per group): control, EAE, low-prophylaxis, high-prophylaxis, low-treatment and high-treatment. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) was induced by myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) and pertussis toxin. Nobiletin was administered in low (25 mg/kg) and high (50 mg/kg) doses, intraperitoneally. The prophylactic and therapeutic effects of nobiletin on brain tissue and spinal cord were evaluated by expression of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferon gamma (IFNγ), IL-6, IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß) using immunohistochemistry and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Prophylactic and therapeutic use of nobiletin inhibited EAE-induced increase of TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6 activities to alleviate inflammatory response in brain and spinal cord. Moreover, nobiletin supplement dramatically increased the IL-10, TGF-ß and IFNγ expressions in prophylaxis and treatment groups compared with the EAE group in the brain and spinal cord. The results obtained from this study show that prophylactic and therapeutic nobiletin modulates expressions of proinflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokines in brain and spinal cord dose-dependent manner in EAE model. These data demonstrates that nobiletin has a potential to attenuate inflammation in EAE mouse model. These experimental findings need to be supported by clinical studies.

Farnesol induces protection against murine CNS inflammatory demyelination and modifies gut microbiome.

Farnesol is a 15­carbon organic isoprenol synthesized by plants and mammals with anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective activities. We sought to determine whether farnesol treatment would result in protection against murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a well-established model of multiple sclerosis (MS). We compared disease progression and severity in C57BL/6 mice treated orally with 100 mg/kg/day farnesol solubilized in corn oil to corn-oil treated and untreated EAE mice. Farnesol significantly delayed the onset of EAE (by ~2 days) and dramatically decreased disease severity (~80%) compared to controls. Disease protection by farnesol was associated with a significant reduction in spinal cord infiltration by monocytes-macrophages, dendritic cells, CD4+ T cells, and a significant change in gut microbiota composition, including a decrease in the Firmicutes:Bacteroidetes ratio. The study suggests FOL could protect MS patients against CNS inflammatory demyelination by partially modulating the gut microbiome composition.

Differential Role of p53 in Oligodendrocyte Survival in Response to Various Stresses: Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis, Cuprizone Intoxication or White Matter Stroke.

Promoting oligodendrocyte viability has been proposed as a therapeutic strategy for alleviating many neuronal diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and stroke. However, molecular pathways critical for oligodendrocyte survival under various stresses are still not well known. p53 is a strong tumor suppressor and regulates cell cycle, DNA repair and cell death. Our previous studies have shown that p53 plays an important role in promoting neuronal survival after insults, but its specific role in oligodendrocyte survival is not known. Here, we constructed the mice with oligodendrocyte-specific p53 loss by crossing TRP53flox/flox mice and CNP-cre mice, and found that p53 was dispensable for oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelin formation under physiological condition. In the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, p53 loss of function, specifically in oligodendrocytes, did not affect the EAE disease severity and had no effect on demyelination in the spinal cord of the mice. Interestingly, p53 deficiency in oligodendrocytes significantly attenuated the demyelination of corpus callosum and alleviated the functional impairment of motor coordination and spatial memory in the cuprizone demyelination model. Moreover, the oligodendrocyte-specific loss of p53 provided protection against subcortical white matter damage and mitigated recognition memory impairment in mice in the white matter stroke model. These results suggest that p53 plays different roles in the brain and spinal cord or in response to various stresses. Thus, p53 may be a therapeutic target for oligodendrocyte prevention in specific brain injuries, such as white matter stroke and multiple sclerosis.

N-Acylethanolamine-Hydrolyzing Acid Amidase Inhibition, but Not Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase Inhibition, Prevents the Development of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Mice.

N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) are endogenous bioactive lipids reported to exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects mediated by cannabinoid receptors and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), among others. Therefore, interfering with NAE signaling could be a promising strategy to decrease inflammation in neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase (NAAA) are key modulators of NAE levels. This study aims to investigate and compare the effect of NAAA inhibition, FAAH inhibition, and dual inhibition of both enzymes in a mouse model of MS, namely the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Our data show that NAAA inhibition strongly decreased the hallmarks of the pathology. Interestingly, FAAH inhibition was less efficient in decreasing inflammatory hallmarks despite the increased NAE levels. Moreover, the inhibition of both NAAA and FAAH, using a dual-inhibitor or the co-administration of NAAA and FAAH inhibitors, did not show an added value compared to NAAA inhibition. Furthermore, our data suggest an important role of decreased activation of astrocytes and microglia in the effects of NAAA inhibition on EAE, while NAAA inhibition did not affect T cell recall. This work highlights the beneficial effects of NAAA inhibition in the context of central nervous system inflammation and suggests that the simultaneous inhibition of NAAA and FAAH has no additional beneficial effect in EAE.

SPNS2 enables T cell egress from lymph nodes during an immune response.

T cell expression of sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor 1 (S1PR1) enables T cell exit from lymph nodes (LNs) into lymph, while endothelial S1PR1 expression regulates vascular permeability. Drugs targeting S1PR1 treat autoimmune disease by trapping pathogenic T cells within LNs, but they have adverse cardiovascular side effects. In homeostasis, the transporter SPNS2 supplies lymph S1P and enables T cell exit, while the transporter MFSD2B supplies most blood S1P and supports vascular function. It is unknown whether SPNS2 remains necessary to supply lymph S1P during an immune response, or whether in inflammation other compensatory transporters are upregulated. Here, using a model of dermal inflammation, we demonstrate that SPNS2 supplies the S1P that guides T cells out of LNs with an ongoing immune response. Furthermore, deletion of Spns2 is protective in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. These results support the therapeutic potential of SPNS2 inhibitors to achieve spatially specific modulation of S1P signaling.

Targeted Expression of Myelin Autoantigen in the Periphery Induces Antigen-Specific T and B Cell Tolerance and Ameliorates Autoimmune Disease.

There is a great interest in developing antigen-specific therapeutic approaches for the treatment of autoimmune diseases without compromising normal immune function. The key challenges are to control all antigen-specific lymphocyte populations that contribute to pathogenic inflammatory processes and to provide long-term protection from disease relapses. Here, we show that myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-specific tolerance can be established by ectopic expression of MOG in the immune organs. Using transgenic mice expressing MOG-specific CD4, CD8, and B cell receptors, we show that MOG expression in the bone marrow cells results in impaired development of MOG-specific lymphocytes. Ectopic MOG expression has also resulted in long-lasting protection from MOG-induced autoimmunity. This finding raises hope that transplantation of autoantigen-expressing bone marrow cells as a therapeutic strategy for specific autoantigen-driven autoimmune diseases.

Trichinella spiralis excretory-secretory products downregulate MMP-9 in Dark Agouti rats affected by experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), are implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and in its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Our aim was to investigate whether amelioration of EAE in Dark Agouti (DA) rats, induced by Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae excretory-secretory products (ES L1), could be related to the level and activity of gelatinases, MMP-9 and MMP-2. Serum levels of MMP-9, MMP-2, NGAL/MMP-9, TIMP-1, and cytokines, evaluated by gel-zymography or ELISA, as well as gelatinases and TIMP-1 expression in the spinal cord (SC), were determined in: i) EAE induced, ii) ES L1-treated EAE induced animals. Milder clinical signs in ES L1-treated EAE induced DA rats were accompanied with lower serum levels of MMP-9 and NGAL/MMP-9 complex. However, the correlation between the severity of EAE and the level of serum MMP-9 was found only in the peak of the disease, with MMP-9/TIMP-1 ratio higher in EAE animals without ES L1 treatment. Lower expression of MMP-9 in SC of ES L1-treated, EAE induced rats, correlated with the reduced number of SC infiltrating cells. In SC infiltrates, in the effector and the recovery phase, production of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 was higher in animals treated with ES L1 prior to EAE induction, compared to untreated EAE animals. Reduced expression of MMP-9 in SC tissue, which correlated with the reduced number of infiltrating cells, might be ascribed to regulatory mechanisms, among which is IL-10.

Anti-CD20 Depletes Meningeal B Cells but Does Not Halt the Formation of Meningeal Ectopic Lymphoid Tissue.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether anti-CD20 B-cell-depleting monoclonal antibodies (ɑCD20 mAbs) inhibit the formation or retention of meningeal ectopic lymphoid tissue (mELT) in a murine model of multiple sclerosis (MS). METHODS: We used a spontaneous chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of mice with mutant T-cell and B-cell receptors specific for myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), which develop meningeal inflammatory infiltrates resembling those described in MS. ɑCD20 mAbs were administered in either a preventive or a treatment regimen. The extent and cellular composition of mELT was assessed by histology and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: ɑCD20 mAb, applied in a paradigm to either prevent or treat EAE, did not alter the disease course in either condition. However, ɑCD20 mAb depleted virtually all B cells from the meningeal compartment but failed to prevent the formation of mELT altogether. Because of the absence of B cells, mELT was less densely populated with immune cells and the cellular composition was changed, with increased neutrophil granulocytes. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that, in CNS autoimmune disease, meningeal inflammatory infiltrates may form and persist in the absence of B cells. Together with the finding that ɑCD20 mAb does not ameliorate spontaneous chronic EAE with mELT, our data suggest that mELT may have yet unknown capacities that are independent of B cells and contribute to CNS autoimmunity.