Difference between endocardial and epicardial application of pulsed fields for targeting Epicardial Ganglia: An in-silico modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Pulsed Field Ablation (PFA) has recently been proposed as a non-thermal energy to treat atrial fibrillation by selective ablation of ganglionated plexi (GP) embedded in epicardial fat. While some of PFA-technologies use an endocardial approach, others use epicardial access with promising pre-clinical results. However, as each technology uses a different and sometimes proprietary pulse application protocol, the comparation between endocardial vs. epicardial approach is almost impossible in experimental terms. For this reason, our study, based on a computational model, allows a direct comparison of electric field distribution and thermal-side effects of both approaches under equal conditions in terms of electrode design, pulse protocol and anatomical characteristics of the tissues involved. METHODS: 2D computational models with axial symmetry were built for endocardial and epicardial approaches. Atrial (1.5-2.5 mm) and fat (1-5 mm) thicknesses were varied to simulate a representative sample of what happens during PFA ablation for different applied voltage values (1000, 1500 and 2000 V) and number of pulses (30 and 50). RESULTS: The epicardial approach was superior for capturing greater volumes of fat when the applied voltage was increased: 231 mm3/kV with the epicardial approach vs. 182 mm3/kV with the endocardial approach. In relation to collateral damage to the myocardium, the epicardial approach considerably spares the myocardium, unlike what happens with the endocardial approach. Although the epicardial approach caused much more thermal damage in the fat, there is not a significant difference between the approaches in terms of size of thermal damage in the myocardium. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that epicardial PFA ablation of GPs is more effective than an endocardial approach. The proximity and directionality of the electric field deposited using an epicardial approach are key to ensuring that higher electric field strengths and increased temperatures are obtained within the epicardial fat, thus contributing to selective ablation of the GPs with minimal myocardial damage.

Computer based method for identification of fibrotic scars from electrograms and local activation times on the epi- and endocardial surfaces of the ventricles.

Cardiac fibrosis stands as one of the most critical conditions leading to lethal cardiac arrhythmias. Identifying the precise location of cardiac fibrosis is crucial for planning clinical interventions in patients with various forms of ventricular and atrial arrhythmias. As fibrosis impedes and alters the path of electrical waves, detecting fibrosis in the heart can be achieved through analyzing electrical signals recorded from its surface. In current clinical practices, it has become feasible to record electrical activity from both the endocardial and epicardial surfaces of the heart. This paper presents a computational method for reconstructing 3D fibrosis using unipolar electrograms obtained from both surfaces of the ventricles. The proposed method calculates the percentage of fibrosis in various ventricular segments by analyzing the local activation times and peak-to-peak amplitudes of the electrograms. Initially, the method was tested using simulated data representing idealized fibrosis in a heart segment; subsequently, it was validated in the left ventricle with fibrosis obtained from a patient with nonischemic cardiomyopathy. The method successfully determined the location and extent of fibrosis in 204 segments of the left ventricle model with an average error of 0.0±4.3% (N = 204). Moreover, the method effectively detected fibrotic scars in the mid-myocardial region, a region known to present challenges in accurate detection using electrogram amplitude as the primary criterion.

Endocardial Fibroelastosis Resection: When it Works and When it Does Not.

Endocardial fibroelastosis (EFE) is a thickening of the endocardial layer by accumulation of collagen and elastic fibers. Endothelial to mesenchymal transformation is proposed to be the underlying mechanism of formation. Although EFE can occur in both right and left ventricles, this article will focus on management of left ventricular EFE. Through its fibrous, nonelastic manifestation EFE restricts the myocardium leading to diastolic and systolic ventricular dysfunction and prevents ventricular growth in neonates and infants. The presence of EFE may be a marker for underlying myocardial fibrosis as well. The extent of EFE within the left ventricular cavity can be variable ranging from patchy to confluent distribution. Similarly the depth of penetration and degree of infiltration into myocardium can be variable. The management of EFE is controversial, although resection of EFE has been reported as part of the staged ventricular recruitment therapy. Following resection, EFE recurs and infiltrates the myocardium after primary resection. Herein we review the current experience with EFE resection.

Endocardial repolarization dispersion in BrS: A novel automatic algorithm for mapping activation recovery interval.

INTRODUCTION: Repolarization dispersion in the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) contributes to the type-1 electrocardiographic (ECG) phenotype of Brugada syndrome (BrS), while data on the significance and feasibility of mapping repolarization dispersion in BrS patients are scarce. Moreover, the role of endocardial repolarization dispersion in BrS is poorly investigated. We aimed to assess endocardial repolarization patterns through an automated calculation of activation recovery interval (ARI) estimated on unipolar electrograms (UEGs) in spontaneous type-1 BrS patients and controls; we also investigated the relation between ARI and right ventricle activation time (RVAT), and T-wave peak-to-end interval (Tpe) in BrS patients. METHODS: Patients underwent endocardial high-density electroanatomical mapping (HDEAM); BrS showing an overt type-1 ECG were defined as OType1, while those without (latent type-1 ECG and LType1) received ajmaline infusion. BrS patients only underwent programmed ventricular stimulation (PVS). Data were elaborated to obtain ARI corrected with the Bazett formula (ARIc), while RVAT was derived from activation maps. RESULTS: 39 BrS subjects (24 OType1 and 15 LTtype1) and 4 controls were enrolled. OType1 and post-ajmaline LType1 showed longer mean ARIc than controls (306 ± 27.3 ms and 333.3 ± 16.3 ms vs. 281.7 ± 10.3 ms, p = .05 and p < .001, respectively). Ajmaline induced a significant prolongation of ARIc compared to pre-ajmaline LTtype1 (333.3 ± 16.3 vs. 303.4 ± 20.7 ms, p < .001) and OType1 (306 ± 27.3 ms, p < .001). In patients with type-1 ECG (OTtype1 and post-ajmaline LType1) ARIc correlated with RVAT (r = .34, p = .04) and Tpec (r = .60, p < .001), especially in OType1 subjects (r = .55, p = .008 and r = .65 p < .001, respectively). CONCLUSION: ARIc mapping demonstrates increased endocardial repolarization dispersion in RVOT in BrS. Endocardial ARIc positively correlates with RVAT and Tpec, especially in OType1.

Left Ventricular Outflow Tract Modification for Transcatheter Mitral Valve Replacement.

Left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) obstruction is a life-threatening complication of transcatheter mitral valve replacement. In-depth analysis of pre-procedural computed tomography enables accurate prediction of this risk. Several techniques for LVOT modification, including Laceration of the Anterior Mitral leaflet to Prevent Outflow ObtructioN, preemptive alcohol septal ablation, preemptive radiofrequency ablation, and Septal Scoring Along the Midline Endocardium, have been described as effective strategies to mitigate this risk. This review aims to explore the indications, procedural steps, and outcomes associated with these LVOT modification techniques.

Endocardium gives rise to blood cells in zebrafish embryos.

Previous studies have suggested that the endocardium contributes to hematopoiesis in murine embryos, although definitive evidence to demonstrate the hematopoietic potential of the endocardium is still missing. Here, we use a zebrafish embryonic model to test the emergence of hematopoietic progenitors from the endocardium. By using a combination of expression analysis, time-lapse imaging, and lineage-tracing approaches, we demonstrate that myeloid cells emerge from the endocardium in zebrafish embryos. Inhibition of Etv2/Etsrp or Scl/Tal1, two known master regulators of hematopoiesis and vasculogenesis, does not affect the emergence of endocardial-derived myeloid cells, while inhibition of Hedgehog signaling results in their reduction. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis followed by experimental validation suggests that the endocardium is the major source of neutrophilic granulocytes. These findings will promote our understanding of alternative mechanisms involved in hematopoiesis, which are likely to be conserved between zebrafish and mammalian embryos.

A self-powered intracardiac pacemaker in swine model.

Harvesting biomechanical energy from cardiac motion is an attractive power source for implantable bioelectronic devices. Here, we report a battery-free, transcatheter, self-powered intracardiac pacemaker based on the coupled effect of triboelectrification and electrostatic induction for the treatment of arrhythmia in large animal models. We show that the capsule-shaped device (1.75 g, 1.52 cc) can be integrated with a delivery catheter for implanting in the right ventricle of a swine through the intravenous route, which effectively converts cardiac motion energy to electricity and maintains endocardial pacing function during the three-week follow-up period. We measure in vivo open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the self-powered intracardiac pacemaker of about 6.0 V and 0.2 µA, respectively. This approach exhibits up-to-date progress in self-powered medical devices and it may overcome the inherent energy shortcomings of implantable pacemakers and other bioelectronic devices for therapy and sensing.

Spatiotemporal modulation of nitric oxide and Notch signaling by hemodynamic-responsive Trpv4 is essential for ventricle regeneration.

Zebrafish have a remarkable ability to regenerate injured hearts. Altered hemodynamic forces after larval ventricle ablation activate the endocardial Klf2a-Notch signaling cascade to direct zebrafish cardiac regeneration. However, how the heart perceives blood flow changes and initiates signaling pathways promoting regeneration is not fully understood. The present study demonstrated that the mechanosensitive channel Trpv4 sensed the altered hemodynamic forces in injured hearts and its expression was regulated by blood flow. In addition to mediating the endocardial Klf2a-Notch signal cascade around the atrioventricular canal (AVC), we discovered that Trpv4 regulated nitric oxide (NO) signaling in the bulbus arteriosus (BA). Further experiments indicated that Notch signaling primarily acted at the early stage of regeneration, and the major role of NO signaling was at the late stage and through TGF-ß pathway. Overall, our findings revealed that mechanosensitive channels perceived the changes in hemodynamics after ventricle injury, and provide novel insights into the temporal and spatial coordination of multiple signaling pathways regulating heart regeneration.

The Potential of Berberine to Target Telocytes in Rabbit Heart.

A brand-new class of interstitial cells, called telocytes, has been detected in the heart. Telocytes can connect and transmit signals to almost all cardiomyocytes; this is highly interrelated with the occurrence and development of heart diseases. Modern studies have shown that berberine has a therapeutic effect on cardiovascular health. However, berberine's mechanism of action on the cardiovascular system through cardiac telocytes is unclear. Interestingly, 5 µm of berberine remarkably decreased the concentration of intracellular calcium and membrane depolarization in cultured telocytes, upregulated the expression of CX43 and ß-catenin, and downregulated the expressions of TRPV4 and TRPV1. Here, telocytes were identified in the vascular adventitia and intima, endocardium, myocardium, adventitia, and heart valves. Moreover, telocytes were broadly dispersed around cardiac vessels and interacted directly through gap junctions and indirectly through extracellular vesicles. Together, cardiac telocytes interact with berberine and then deliver drug information to the heart. Telocytes may be an essential cellular target for drug therapy of the cardiovascular system.

Electrophysiological and Histopathological Characteristics of Ventricular Tachycardia Associated With Primary Cardiac Tumors.

BACKGROUND: Ventricular tachycardia (VT) associated with primary cardiac tumors (PCTs) originating from the ventricles is rare, but lethal, in young patients. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to clarify the mechanisms underlying primary cardiac tumor-related ventricular tachycardia (PCT-VT) and establish a therapeutic strategy for this form of VT. METHODS: Among 67 patients who underwent surgery for VT at our institute between 1981 and 2020, 4 patients aged 1 to 34 years, including 3 males, showed PCT-VT (fibroma, 2; lipoma, 1; and hamartoma, 1), which was investigated using a combination of intraoperative electroanatomical mapping and histopathological studies. RESULTS: All 4 patients developed electrical storms of sustained VTs refractory to multiple drugs and repetitive endocardial ablations. The VT mechanism was re-entry, and intraoperative electroanatomical mapping showed a centrifugal activation pattern originating from the border between the tumor and healthy myocardium, where fractionated potentials were detected during sinus rhythm. Histopathological studies of serial sections of specimens acquired from these areas revealed tumor infiltration into the surrounding myocardium with cell disorganization, exhibiting myocardial disarray. Several myocardia entrapped in the tumor edges contributed to the development and sustainment of re-entrant VT activation. In the 2 patients in whom complete resection was unfeasible, encircling cryoablation to entirely isolate the unresectable tumor was effective in suppressing VT occurrence. CONCLUSIONS: The mechanism underlying PCT-VT involves re-entry localized at the tumor edges. Myocardial disarray associated with tumor infiltration is a substrate for this form of VT. Cryoablation along the border between the tumor and myocardium is a promising therapeutic option for unresectable PCT-VT.

Effective ablation of atrial tachycardia with an epicardial circuit-insights from endocardial scars sites: a case study.

A previous study reported primary macroreentrant atrial tachycardia (AT) in the left atrium (LA), including the epicardial circuit on a left atrial anterior wall (LAAW) scar, without any prior cardiac intervention (Miyazawa et al. in J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2019; 30: 263-264). However, determining the target for terminating macroreentrant ATs is challenging. The mapping revealed a centrifugal pattern but did not fully elucidate the AT circuit. The reentrant mechanism of these ATs was confirmed using entrainment pacing. The earliest excitation site (EES) was traditionally selected as the ablation site, typically located in healthy tissue. However, our two cases provide new insights into AT termination, including the epicardial bridge across the endocardial LAAW scar, using minimum ablation points, without the need to ablate the healthy EES.

Modeling ventricular repolarization gradients in normal cases using the equivalent dipole layer.

Background Electrical activity underlying the T-wave is less well understood than the QRS-complex. This study investigated the relationship between normal T-wave morphology and the underlying ventricular repolarization gradients using the equivalent dipole layer (EDL). Methods Body-surface-potential-maps (BSPM, 67­leads) were obtained in nine normal cases. Subject specific MRI-based anatomical heart/torso-models with electrode positions were created. The boundary element method was used to account for the volume conductor effects. To simulate the measured T-waves, the EDL was used to apply different ventricular repolarization gradients: a) transmural, b) interventricular c) apico-basal and d) all three gradients (a-c) combined. The combined gradient (d) was optimized using an inverse procedure (Levenberg-Marquardt). Correspondence between simulated and measured T-waves was assessed using correlation coefficient (CC) and relative difference (RD). Results Realistic T-waves were simulated if repolarization times of: (a) the epicardium were smaller than the endocardium; (b) the left ventricle were smaller than the right ventricle and (c) the apex increased towards the base. The apico-basal gradient resulted in the highest correspondence between measured and simulated T-waves (CC = 0.84(0.81-0.91);RD = 0.68(0.60-0.71)) compared to a transmural gradient (CC = 0.77(0.71-0.80);RD = 1.46(0.82-1.75)) and an interventricular gradient (CC = 0.71(0.67-0.80);RD = 0.85(0.75-0.87)). All three gradients combined further improved the correspondence between measured and simulated T-waves (CC = 0.83(0.82-0.89);RD = 0.60(0.51-0.63)), especially after optimization (CC = 0.96(0.94-0.98);RD = 0.27(0.22-0.34)). Conclusion The application of all repolarization gradients combined resulted in the largest agreement between simulated and measured T-waves, followed by the apico-basal repolarization gradient. With these findings, we will optimize our EDL-based inverse procedure to assess repolarization abnormalities.

Transcoronary mapping with an over-the-wire multielectrode catheter in scar-related ventricular tachycardia patients.

AIMS: The usefulness of coronary venous system mapping has been reported for assessing intramural and epicardial substrates in patients with scar-related ventricular tachycardia (VT). However, there has been little data on mapping from coronary arteries. We investigated the safety and utility of mapping from coronary arteries with a novel over-the-wire multielectrode catheter in scar-related VT patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ten consecutive scar-related VT patients with non-ischaemic cardiomyopathy who underwent mapping from a coronary artery were analysed. Six patients underwent simultaneous coronary venous mapping. High-density maps were created by combining the left ventricular endocardium and coronary vessels. Substrate maps were created during the baseline rhythm with 2438 points (IQR 2136-3490 points), including 329 (IQR 59-508 points) in coronary arteries. Abnormal bipolar electrograms were successfully recorded within coronary arteries close to the endocardial substrate in seven patients. During VT, isthmus components were recorded within the coronary vessels in three patients with no discernible isthmus components on endocardial mapping. The ablation terminated the VT from an endocardial site opposite the earliest site in the coronary arteries in five patients. CONCLUSION: The transcoronary mapping with an over-the-wire multielectrode catheter can safely record abnormal bipolar electrograms within coronary arteries. Additional mapping data from the coronary vessels have the potential to assess three-dimensional ventricular substrates and circuit structures in scar-related VT patients.

Pathological features of primary cardiac myxoid tumour in dogs: a review of 11 cases (2002-2022).

This report documents the pathological features of primary cardiac myxoid tumour (MT) in 11 dogs. Macroscopically, all the tumours were located in the tricuspid valve (TV), its septal leaflet being predominantly affected. Therefore, it appears that the TV is the most common site of occurrence for cardiac MT in dogs. Two gross anatomical types of canine valvular MT were evident. Seven of the 11 tumours were round or oval with a smooth or gently lobulated and glistening surface, while the other four were gelatinous, multilobulated and polypoid, with an irregular surface. Microscopically, in nine cases the tumours had an abundant myxoid matrix within which elongated spindle-shaped cells with no remarkable cytological atypia were sparsely embedded, suggesting a benign character (ie, myxoma). In the other two cases the tumours consisted of variably dense, haphazardly arranged, interlacing streams of anaplastic spindle-shaped or polygonal cells containing many mitotic figures, indicative of a malignant form of myxoma (ie, myxosarcoma). Isolated or clustered collections of myxoma cells (eg, cords, rings, syncytia) characteristic of human atrial myxoma were only rarely evident or lacking in all 11 cases, indicating that rarity or absence of such structural features may be specific to valvular MTs. Immunohistochemical findings were indicative of smooth muscle differentiation of the neoplastic cells. Tumour embolization to the intrapulmonary arteries and/or tumour implantation on the endocardium of the right heart chambers was evident only in the four cases of irregular-surfaced MT.

Cooperative Response to Endocardial Notch Reveals Interaction With Hippo Pathway.

BACKGROUND: The endocardium is a crucial signaling center for cardiac valve development and maturation. Genetic analysis has identified several human endocardial genes whose inactivation leads to bicuspid aortic valve formation and calcific aortic valve disease, but knowledge is very limited about the role played in valve development and disease by noncoding endocardial regulatory regions and upstream factors. METHODS: We manipulated Notch signaling in mouse embryonic endocardial cells by short-term and long-term coculture with OP9 stromal cells expressing Notch ligands and inhibition of Notch activity. We examined the transcriptional profile and chromatin accessibility landscape for each condition, integrated transcriptomic, transcription factor occupancy, chromatin accessibility, and proteomic datasets. We generated in vitro and in vivo models with CRISPR-Cas9-edited deletions of various noncoding regulatory elements and validated their regulatory potential. RESULTS: We identified primary and secondary transcriptional responses to Notch ligands in the mouse embryonic endocardium, and a NOTCH-dependent transcriptional signature in valve development and disease. By defining the changes in the chromatin accessibility landscape and integrating with the landscape in developing mouse endocardium and adult human valves, we identify potential noncoding regulatory elements, validated selected candidates, propose interacting cofactors, and define the timeframe of their regulatory activity. Additionally, we found cooperative transcriptional repression with Hippo pathway by inhibiting nuclear Yap (Yes-associated protein) activity in the endocardium during cardiac valve development. CONCLUSIONS: Sequential Notch-dependent transcriptional regulation in the embryonic endocardium involves multiple factors. Notch activates certain noncoding elements through these factors and simultaneously suppresses elements that could hinder cardiac valve development and homeostasis. Biorxviv: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.03.23.533882v1.full.

Reconstructing cardiac electrical excitations from optical mapping recordings.

The reconstruction of electrical excitation patterns through the unobserved depth of the tissue is essential to realizing the potential of computational models in cardiac medicine. We have utilized experimental optical-mapping recordings of cardiac electrical excitation on the epicardial and endocardial surfaces of a canine ventricle as observations directing a local ensemble transform Kalman filter data assimilation scheme. We demonstrate that the inclusion of explicit information about the stimulation protocol can marginally improve the confidence of the ensemble reconstruction and the reliability of the assimilation over time. Likewise, we consider the efficacy of stochastic modeling additions to the assimilation scheme in the context of experimentally derived observation sets. Approximation error is addressed at both the observation and modeling stages through the uncertainty of observations and the specification of the model used in the assimilation ensemble. We find that perturbative modifications to the observations have marginal to deleterious effects on the accuracy and robustness of the state reconstruction. Furthermore, we find that incorporating additional information from the observations into the model itself (in the case of stimulus and stochastic currents) has a marginal improvement on the reconstruction accuracy over a fully autonomous model, while complicating the model itself and thus introducing potential for new types of model errors. That the inclusion of explicit modeling information has negligible to negative effects on the reconstruction implies the need for new avenues for optimization of data assimilation schemes applied to cardiac electrical excitation.

Expression analysis of plvap in mouse heart development, homeostasis and injury.

Plasmalemma vesicle associated protein (PLVAP) is commonly considered to be specifically expressed in endothelial cells in which it localized to diaphragms of caveolae, fenestrae, and transendothelial channels. PLVAP is reported to be an important regulator of heart development and a novel target to promote cardiac repair in the ischemic heart. However, the dynamics of plvap expression in heart development, homeostasis and pathology have not been comprehensively described. In this study, we analyzed the temporal and spatial expression of plvap in mouse heart under different conditions. We found that, during embryonic and neonatal stages, PLVAP was detected in endocardial endothelial cells, epicardial mesothelial cells, and a small amount of coronary vascular endothelial cells. In adult heart, PLVAP was also identified in endocardial cells and a few coronary vascular endothelial cells. However, epicardial expression of PLVAP was lost during postnatal heart development and cannot be detected in mouse heart by immunostaining since 3-week-old. We also analyzed the expression of plvap in a model of cardiac hypertrophy and failure induced by transverse aortic constriction surgery, and identified expression of PLVAP in endocardial cells and coronary vascular endothelial cells in the injured heart. This study provides new evidence to better understand the role of plvap in mouse heart development and injury.