Artemisinins ameliorate polycystic ovarian syndrome by mediating LONP1-CYP11A1 interaction.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), a prevalent reproductive disorder in women of reproductive age, features androgen excess, ovulatory dysfunction, and polycystic ovaries. Despite its high prevalence, specific pharmacologic intervention for PCOS is challenging. In this study, we identified artemisinins as anti-PCOS agents. Our finding demonstrated the efficacy of artemisinin derivatives in alleviating PCOS symptoms in both rodent models and human patients, curbing hyperandrogenemia through suppression of ovarian androgen synthesis. Artemisinins promoted cytochrome P450 family 11 subfamily A member 1 (CYP11A1) protein degradation to block androgen overproduction. Mechanistically, artemisinins directly targeted lon peptidase 1 (LONP1), enhanced LONP1-CYP11A1 interaction, and facilitated LONP1-catalyzed CYP11A1 degradation. Overexpression of LONP1 replicated the androgen-lowering effect of artemisinins. Our data suggest that artemisinin application is a promising approach for treating PCOS and highlight the crucial role of the LONP1-CYP11A1 interaction in controlling hyperandrogenism and PCOS occurrence.

Synergistic cooperation between the ß-catenin and SF1 regulates progesterone synthesis in laying hen ovarian granulosa cells.

The development of ovarian follicles in poultry is a key factor affecting the performance of egg production. Ovarian follicle development is regulated via the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway, and ß-catenin, encoded by CTNNB1, is a core component of this pathway. In this study, using ovary GCs from laying hens, we investigated the regulatory role of CTNNB1 in steroid synthesis. We found that CTNNB1 significantly regulates the expression of StAR and CYP11A1 (key genes related to progesterone synthesis) and the secretion of progesterone (P4). Furthermore, simultaneous overexpression of CTNNB1 and SF1 resulted in significantly higher levels of CYP11A1 and secretion of P4 than in cells overexpressing CTNNB1 or SF1 alone. We also found that in GCs overexpressing SF1, levels of CYP11A1 and secreted P4 were significantly greater than in controls. Silencing of CYP11A1 resulted in the inhibition of P4 secretion while overexpression of SF1 in CYP11A1-silenced cells restored P4 secretion to normal levels. Together, these results indicate that synergistic cooperation between the ß-catenin and SF1 regulates progesterone synthesis in laying hen ovarian hierarchical granulosa cells to promote CYP11A1 expression.

Prenatal diethylhexylphthalate exposure disturbs adult Leydig cell function via epigenetic downregulation of METTL4 expression in male rats.

Prenatal exposure to diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) has been linked with a decline in testosterone levels in adult male rats, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. We investigated the potential epigenetic regulation, particularly focusing on N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification, as a possible mechanism. Dams were gavaged with DEHP (0, 10, 100, and 750 mg/kg/day) from gestational day 14 to day 21. The male offspring were examined at the age of 56 days. Prenatal DEHP administration at 750 mg/kg/day caused a decline in testosterone concentrations, an elevation in follicle-stimulating hormone, a downregulated expression of CYP11A1 HSD3B2, without affecting Leydig cell numbers. Interestingly, Methyltransferase Like 4 (METTL4), an m6A methyltransferase, was downregulated, while there were no changes in METTL3 and METTL14. Moreover, CYP11A1 showed m6A reduction in response to prenatal DEHP exposure. Additionally, METTL4 expression increased postnatally, peaking in adulthood. Knockdown of METTL4 resulted in the downregulation of CYP11A1 and HSD3B2 and an increase in SCARB1 expression. Furthermore, the increase in autophagy protection in adult Leydig cells induced by prenatal DEHP exposure was not affected by 3-methyladenosine (3MA) treatment, indicating a potential protective role of autophagy in response to DEHP exposure. In conclusion, prenatal DEHP exposure reduces testosterone by downregulating CYP11A1 and HSD3B2 via m6A epigenetic regulation and induction of autophagy protection in adult Leydig cells as a response to DEHP exposure.

Pregnenolone and progesterone production from natural sterols using recombinant strain of Mycolicibacterium smegmatis mc2 155 expressing mammalian steroidogenesis system.

BACKGROUND: Pregnenolone and progesterone are the life-important steroid hormones regulating essential vital functions in mammals, and widely used in different fields of medicine. Microbiological production of these compounds from sterols is based on the use of recombinant strains expressing the enzyme system cholesterol hydroxylase/C20-C22 lyase (CH/L) of mammalian steroidogenesis. However, the efficiency of the known recombinant strains is still low. New recombinant strains and combination approaches are now needed to produce these steroid hormones. RESULTS: Based on Mycolicibacterium smegmatis, a recombinant strain was created that expresses the steroidogenesis system (CYP11A1, adrenodoxin reductase, adrenodoxin) of the bovine adrenal cortex. The recombinant strain transformed cholesterol and phytosterol to form progesterone among the metabolites. When 3-methoxymethyl ethers of sterols were applied as bioconversion substrates, the corresponding 3-ethers of pregnenolone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) were identified as major metabolites. Under optimized conditions, the recombinant strain produced 85.2 ± 4.7 mol % 3-methoxymethyl-pregnenolone within 48 h, while production of 3-substituted DHEA was not detected. After the 3-methoxymethyl function was deprotected by acid hydrolysis, crystalline pregnenolone was isolated in high purity (over 98%, w/w). The structures of steroids were confirmed using TLC, HPLC, MS and 1H- and 13C-NMR analyses. CONCLUSION: The use of mycolicybacteria as a microbial platform for the expression of systems at the initial stage of mammalian steroidogenesis ensures the production of valuable steroid hormones-progesterone and pregnenolone from cholesterol. Selective production of pregnenolone from cholesterol is ensured by the use of 3-substituted cholesterol as a substrate and optimization of the conditions for its bioconversion. The results open the prospects for the generation of the new microbial biocatalysts capable of effectively producing value-added steroid hormones.

Barley sprouts and D-Aspartic acid supplementation improves fertility, hatchability, and semen quality in aging male broiler breeders by up-regulating StAR and P450SCC gene expressions.

At 50 wk of age, broiler breeder roosters exhibit a significant decline of fertility. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the impact of incorporating barley sprout (BS) powder, D-aspartic acid (DA), or their combination into the diet on fertility, hatchability, semen quality, and the relative expression of StAR and P450SCC genes in aging broiler roosters. Aging (50 wk) male broiler breeders (n=32) were randomly assigned to one of four dietary treatments (2 × 2 factorial) with 2 levels of BS (0 or 2% basal diet) and DA (0 or 200 mg/kg/BW) for 12 wk. Roosters were individually housed under a 14-h light and 10-h dark cycle, with 150 g/d feed allocation and free access to fresh water, then euthanized. Throughout the study, the body weight of the broiler breeders was measured, along with various parameters related to semen quality, on a weekly basis. Additionally, artificial insemination was performed during the last 2 wk to evaluate reproductive endpoints. The results revealed that both BS and DA decreased (P < 0.01) body weight. Interestingly, the inclusion of BS, either alone or in combination with DA, resulted in a significant increase in total and forward sperm motility. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the seminal concentration of malondialdehyde, a marker of oxidative stress, was significantly decreased by more than 20% in all groups compared to the control. The combination of both BS and DA led to the highest levels of circulating testosterone, as well as the functionality and membrane integrity of sperms. Additionally, it resulted in increased sperm concentrations, production, and penetration, ultimately leading to improved fertility rate and hatchability percentage. Moreover, a positive association between total motility and fertility was observed (P < 0.01). Furthermore, the combined supplementation of BS and DA up-regulated the relative mRNA expression of P450scc and StAR (P < 0.01). To summarize, dietary inclusion of BS, DA, or their combination have a potential to improve various aspects of reproductive performance in aging roosters.

Changes on corpus luteum structure and progesterone synthesis pathway after hCG or GnRH treatment during the early luteal phase in sheep.

This study investigated the effect of hCG or GnRH on structural changes of the corpora lutea (CL) and the regulation of the expression of steroidogenic enzymes involved in P4 secretion in post-ovulatory (po-CL) and accessory CL (acc-CL). Sixty-four ewes were assigned to three groups receiving: 300 IU of hCG (hCG) or 4 µg Buserelin (GnRH) or 1 mL of saline solution (Control) on Day (d) 4 post artificial insemination (FTAI). Laparoscopic ovarian were performed on d 4, 14 and, 21 post-FTAI to determine the numbers of CL. Blood samples were collected for serum LH and P4 analysis. On d 14 post-FTAI, both CL were removed from the ovary to determine large luteal cell (LLC) number and to evaluate the expression of steroidogenic enzymes (HSD3B1, STAR, CYP11A1). Only hCG and GnRH treated ewes generated acc-CL. The LLC in both po- and acc-CL were significantly greater in the hCG group compared to GnRH and Control groups (P<0.05). Overall, hCG group showed the greatest immunodetection of HSD3B1and STAR in both po- and acc-CL (P<0.05). rnRNA expression of HSD3B1, STAR and CYP11A1 in the acc-CL tended to be greater in hCG group than in GnRH group (P<0.1). The LH concentration was increased in GnRH group (P<0.05) and P4 concentration was greater in hCG group compared to the other groups (P<0.05). In conclusion, administration of hCG has a notably impact on acc-CL development and the expression of steroidogenic enzymes compared to GnRH treatment in ewes. This leads to elevated P4 concentration and improved luteal function.

Enhancement of progesterone biosynthesis via kisspeptin stimulation: Upregulation of steroidogenic transcripts and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK1/2) expression in the buffalo luteal cells.

The presence of Kisspeptin (Kp) and its receptors in the corpus luteum (CL) of buffalo has recently been demonstrated. In this study, we investigated the role of Kp in the modulation of progesterone (P4) synthesis in vitro. The primary culture of bubaline luteal cells (LCs) was treated with 10, 50, and 100 nM of Kp and Kp antagonist (KpA) alongside a vehicle control. The combined effect of Kp and KpA was assessed at 100 nM concentration. Intracellular response to Kp treatment in the LCs was assessed by examining transcript profiles (LHR, STAR, CYP11A1, HSD3B1, and ERK1/2) using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). In addition, the immunolocalization of ERK1/2 and phosphorylated ERK1/2 (p-ERK1/2) in the LCs was studied using immunocytochemistry. Accumulation of P4 from the culture supernatant was determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results indicated that LCs had a greater p-ERK1/2 expression in the Kp treatment groups. A significant increase in the P4 concentration was recorded at 50 nM and 100 nM Kp, while KpA did not affect the basal concentration of P4. However, the addition of KpA to the Kp-treated group at 100 nM concentration suppressed the Kp-induced P4 accumulation into a concentration similar to the control. There was significant upregulation of ERK1/2 and CYP11A1 expressions in the Kp-treated LCs at 100 nM (18.1 and 37fold, respectively, p < 0.01). However, the addition of KpA to Kp-treated LCs modulated ERK1/2, LHR, STAR, CYP11A1, and HSD3B1 at 100 nM concentration. It can be concluded that Kp at 100 nM stimulated P4 production, while the addition of KpA suppressed Kp-induced P4 production in the buffalo LCs culture. Furthermore, an increment in p-ERK1/2 expression in the LCs indicated activation of the Kp signaling pathway was associated with luteal steroidogenesis.

Microbiota modulates the steroid response to acute immune stress in male mice.

Microbiota plays a role in shaping the HPA-axis response to psychological stressors. To examine the role of microbiota in response to acute immune stressor, we stimulated the adaptive immune system by anti-CD3 antibody injection and investigated the expression of adrenal steroidogenic enzymes and profiling of plasma corticosteroids and their metabolites in specific pathogen-free (SPF) and germ-free (GF) mice. Using UHPLC-MS/MS, we showed that 4 hours after immune challenge the plasma levels of pregnenolone, progesterone, 11-deoxycorticosterone, corticosterone (CORT), 11-dehydroCORT and their 3α/ß-, 5α-, and 20α-reduced metabolites were increased in SPF mice, but in their GF counterparts, only CORT was increased. Neither immune stress nor microbiota changed the mRNA and protein levels of enzymes of adrenal steroidogenesis. In contrast, immune stress resulted in downregulated expression of steroidogenic genes (Star, Cyp11a1, Hsd3b1, Hsd3b6) and upregulated expression of genes of the 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidoreductase pathway (Akr1c21, Dhrs9) in the testes of SPF mice. In the liver, immune stress downregulated the expression of genes encoding enzymes with 3ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD) (Hsd3b2, Hsd3b3, Hsd3b4, Hsd3b5), 3α-HSD (Akr1c14), 20α-HSD (Akr1c6, Hsd17b1, Hsd17b2) and 5α-reductase (Srd5a1) activities, except for Dhrs9, which was upregulated. In the colon, microbiota downregulated Cyp11a1 and modulated the response of Hsd11b1 and Hsd11b2 expression to immune stress. These data underline the role of microbiota in shaping the response to immune stressor. Microbiota modulates the stress-induced increase in C21 steroids, including those that are neuroactive that could play a role in alteration of HPA axis response to stress in GF animals.

Effect of quercetin on granulosa cells development from hierarchical follicles in chicken.

1. The bioflavonoid quercetin is a biologically active component, but its functional regulation of granulosa cells (GCs) during chicken follicular development is little studied. To investigate the effect of quercetin on follicular development in laying hens, an in vitro study was conducted on granulosa cells from hierarchical follicles treated with quercetin.2. The effect of quercetin on cell activity, proliferation and apoptosis of granulosa cells was detected by CCK-8, EdU and apoptosis assays. The effect on progesterone secretion from granulosa cells was investigated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) mRNA and oestrogen receptors (ERs), as well as the expression of steroid acute regulatory protein (StAR), cytochrome P450 cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc) and 3ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3ß-HSD) mRNA during progesterone synthesis, were measured by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). PCNA, StAR and CYP11A1 protein expression levels were detected using Western blotting (WB).3. The results showed that treatment with quercetin in granulosa cells significantly enhanced cell vitality and proliferation, reduced apoptosis and promoted the expression of gene and protein levels of PCNA. The levels of progesterone secretion increased significantly following quercetin treatment, as did the expression levels of StAR and CYP11A1 using the Western Blot (WB) method.4. The mRNA expression levels of ERα were significantly upregulated in the 100 ng/ml and 1000 ng/ml quercetin-treated groups, while there was no significant difference in expression levels of ERß mRNA.

Effect of cadmium on the regulatory mechanism of steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells during spermatogenesis.

Cadmium is a male reproductive toxicant that interacts with a variety of pathogenetic mechanisms. However, the effect of cadmium on the regulatory mechanism of the steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells during spermatogenesis is still ambiguous. Light microscopy, Western blot, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction were performed to study the regulatory mechanism of the steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells during spermatogenesis. The results indicated that in the control group, Leydig cells showed dynamic immunoreactivity and immunosignaling action with a strong positive significant secretion of 3ß-hydroxysteroid hydrogenase (3ß-HSD) in the interstitial compartment of the testis. Leydig cells showed a high active regulator mechanism of the steroidogenic pathway with increased the proteins and genes expression level of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), cytochrome P450 cholesterol (CYP11A1), cytochrome P450 cholesterol (CYP17A1), 3ß-hydroxysteroid hydrogenase (3ß-HSD) 17ß-hydroxysteroid hydrogenase (17ß-HSD), and androgen receptor (AR) that maintained the healthy and vigorous progressive motile spermatozoa. However, on treatment with cadmium, Leydig cells were irregularly dispersed in the interstitial compartment of the testis. Leydig cells showed reduced immunoreactivity and immunosignaling of 3ß-HSD protein. Meanwhile, cadmium impaired the regulatory mechanism of the steroidogenic process of the Leydig cells with reduced protein and gene expression levels of STAR, CYP11A1, CYP17A1, 3ß-HSD, 17ß-HSD, and AR in the testis. Additionally, treatment with cadmium impaired the serum LH, FSH, and testosterone levels in blood as compared to control. This study explores the hazardous effect of cadmium on the regulatory mechanism of the steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells during spermatogenesis.

The Role of DNMT1 and C/EBPα in the Regulation of CYP11A1 Expression During Syncytialization of Human Placental Trophoblasts.

Progesterone synthesized in the placenta is essential for pregnancy maintenance. CYP11A1 is a key enzyme in progesterone synthesis, and its expression increases greatly during trophoblast syncytialization. However, the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Here, we demonstrated that passive demethylation of CYP11A1 promoter accounted for the upregulation of CYP11A1 expression during syncytialization with the participation of the transcription factor C/EBPα. We found that the methylation rate of a CpG locus in the CYP11A1 promoter was significantly reduced along with decreased DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) expression and its enrichment at the CYP11A1 promoter during syncytialization. DNMT1 overexpression not only increased the methylation of this CpG locus in the CYP11A1 promoter, but also decreased CYP11A1 expression and progesterone production. In silico analysis disclosed multiple C/EBPα binding sites in both CYP11A1 and DNMT1 promoters. C/EBPα expression and its enrichments at both the DNMT1 and CYP11A1 promoters were significantly increased during syncytialization. Knocking-down C/EBPα expression increased DNMT1 while it decreased CYP11A1 expression during syncytialization. Conclusively, C/EBPα plays a dual role in the regulation of CYP11A1 during syncytialization. C/EBPα not only drives CYP11A1 expression directly, but also indirectly through downregulation of DNMT1, which leads to decreased methylation in the CpG locus of the CYP11A1 promoter, resulting in increased progesterone production during syncytialization.

Effects of insulin-like growth factor-1 on the mRNA expression of estradiol receptors, steroidogenic enzymes, and steroid production in bovine follicles.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) plays a crucial role in follicular growth and stimulates steroid hormone production in bovine follicles. Steroid hormones are synthesized through the actions of steroidogenic enzymes, specifically STAR, CYP11A1, HSD3B, and CYP19A1 in both theca cells (TCs) and granulosa cells (GCs), under the influence of gonadotropins. Particularly, estradiol 17ß (E2) assumes a central role in follicular development and selection by activating estrogen receptors ß (ESR2) in GCs. We assessed ESR2 mRNA expression in GCs of developing follicles and investigated the impact of IGF-1 on the mRNA expression of ESR2, CYP19A1, FSHR, and LHCGR, STAR, CYP11A1, and HSD17B in cultured GCs and TCs, respectively. Additionally, we assessed the influence of IGF-1 on androstenedione (A4), progesterone (P4), and testosterone (T) production in TCs. Small-sized follicles (< 6 mm) exhibited the highest levels of ESR2 mRNA expression, whereas medium-sized follicles (7-8 mm) displayed higher levels than large-sized follicles (≥ 9 mm) (P < 0.05). IGF-1 increased the mRNA expression of ESR2, CYP19A1, and FSHR in GCs of follicles of both sizes, except for FSHR mRNA in medium-sized follicles (P < 0.05). IGF-1 significantly elevated mRNA expression of LHCGR, STAR, CYP11A1, and CYP17B in TCs of small- and medium-sized follicles (P < 0.05). Moreover, IGF-1 augmented the production of A4 and P4 but had no impact on T production in TCs of small- and medium-sized follicles. Taken together, our findings indicate that IGF-1 upregulates steroidogenic enzymes and steroid hormone production, underscoring the crucial role of IGF-1 in follicle development and selection.

Expression of cholesterol synthesis and steroidogenic markers in females of the Chinese brown frog (Rana dybowskii) during prespawning and prehibernation.

The oviduct of the Chinese brown frog (Rana dybowskii) expands in prehibernation rather than in prespawning, which is one of the physiological phenomena that occur in the preparation for hibernation. Steroid hormones are known to regulate oviductal development. Cholesterol synthesis and steroidogenesis may play an important role in the expansion of the oviduct before hibernation. In this study, we investigated the expression patterns of the markers that are involved in the de novo steroid synthesis pathway in the oviduct of R. dybowskii during prespawning and prehibernation. According to histological analysis, the oviduct of R. dybowskii contains epithelial cells, glandular cells, and tubule lumens. During prehibernation, oviductal pipe diameter and weight were significantly larger than during prespawning. 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (HMGCR), low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), and steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1) were detected in epithelial cells in prehibernation and glandular cells during prespawning. HMGCR, LDLR, StAR, and P450scc protein expression levels were higher in prehibernation than during prespawning, but the SF-1 protein expression level did not significantly differ. HMGCR, LDLR, StAR, P450scc (CYP11A1), and SF-1 (NR5A1) mRNA expression levels were significantly higher in prehibernation compared with prespawning. The transcriptome results showed that the steroid synthesis pathway was highly expressed during prehibernation. Existing results indicate that the oviduct is able to synthesize steroid hormones using cholesterol, and that steroid hormones may affect the oviductal functions of R. dybowskii.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) inhibits steroidogenesis and mitochondrial function in bovine granulosa cells in vitro.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is a persistent environmental contaminant. Due to the ubiquitous presence of PFOA in the environment, the impacts of PFOA exposure not only affect human reproductive health but may also affect livestock reproductive health. The focus of this study was to determine the effects of PFOA on the physiological functions of bovine granulosa cells in vitro. Primary bovine granulosa cells were exposed to 0, 4, and 40 µM PFOA for 48 and 96 h followed by analysis of granulosa cell function including cell viability, steroidogenesis, and mitochondrial activity. Results revealed that PFOA inhibited steroid hormone secretion and altered the expression of key enzymes required for steroidogenesis. Gene expression analysis revealed decreases in mRNA transcripts for CYP11A1, HSD3B, and CYP19A1 and an increase in STAR expression after PFOA exposure. Similarly, PFOA decreased levels of CYP11A1 and CYP19A1 protein. PFOA did not impact live cell number, alter the cell cycle, or induce apoptosis, although it reduced metabolic activity, indicative of mitochondrial dysfunction. We observed that PFOA treatment caused a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and increases in PINK protein expression, suggestive of mitophagy and mitochondrial damage. Further analysis revealed that these changes were associated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species. Expression of autophagy related proteins phosphoULK1 and LAMP2 were increased after PFOA exposure, in addition to an increased abundance of lysosomes, characteristic of increased autophagy. Taken together, these findings suggest that PFOA can negatively impact granulosa cell steroidogenesis via mitochondrial dysfunction.

Seasonal expressions of the translocator protein (18 kDa), voltage-dependent anion channel, and steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in the scent glands of muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus).

Steroidogenesis machinery involves the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), which regulates cholesterol transfer within the mitochondria, and the transport of cholesterol via a channel composed of 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO), the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) plus some accessory proteins. In this study, we investigated the immunolocalizations and expressions of StAR, TSPO, VDAC and cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc, CYP11A1) in the scent glands of muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) during the breeding and non-breeding periods. StAR, TSPO, VDAC and CYP11A1 were immunolocalized in the scent glandular, interstitial and epithelial cells in both breeding and non-breeding seasons with stronger immunostaining in the breeding season. The mRNA expression levels of StAR, TSPO, VDAC and CYP11A1 were higher in the scent glands of the breeding season than those of the non-breeding season. The circulating follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone (T) as well as scent glandular T and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) concentrations were also significantly higher in the breeding season. Additionally, the transcriptomic study in the scent glands identified that differentially expressed genes might be related to the lipid metabolic process, integral component of membrane, and steroid hormone receptor activity and hormone activity using GO analysis. Further in vitro study verified that StAR, TSPO, VDAC and CYP11A1 expression levels increased significantly after human chorionic gonadotropin, hCG/FSH treatment compared with the control group. The KEGG pathway enriched by differentially expressed genes detected to be involved in endocrine system or amino acid metabolism. These findings suggested that the scent glands of the muskrats have ability to synthesize steroids de novo, and that the steroid hormones may have an important regulatory role in the scent glandular function via an autocrine/paracrine pathway.

Effects of exposure to the explosive and environmental pollutant 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene on ovarian follicle development in rats.

Although 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is a dangerous carcinogen in environmental pollution, information on the reproductive effects of TNT explosive contamination is limited. To explore the possible ovarian effects, TNT explosive-exposed rat models were established, and Wistar female rats were exposed to low and high TNT (40 g and 80 g, air and internal) explosives. After a month of exposure, the estrous cycle, ovarian histopathology, and follicle counting were conducted. Serum hormones follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), progesterone, testosterone, and estradiol were detected, and the mRNA and protein expression of steroidogenic enzymes were measured. The results showed that the diestrus phase duration was significantly (P < 0.05) increased in the high TNT-exposed groups. In addition, the proportions of preantral follicles were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in the high TNT-exposed groups, as well as the proportions of atretic follicles. The serum estradiol levels were significantly (P < 0.05) increased, and the follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone levels were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in the high TNT-exposed groups. The mRNA levels of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (Star), cytochrome P450 cholesterol side chain cleavage (Cyp11a1, Cyp17a1 and Cyp19a1), hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3b (Hsd3b) and steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1) were significantly (P < 0.05) increased in the TNT-exposed groups. The protein levels of Star, Cyp11a1 and Hsd3b were increased (P < 0.05) in the TNT-exposed groups. These results indicate that the exposure of rats to TNT explosive can subsequently affect ovarian follicle development, suggesting that the mechanism may involve disrupting steroidogenesis.

Exploring the impact of CYP11A1's missense SNPs on the interaction between CYP11A1 and cholesterol: A comprehensive structural analysis and MD simulation study.

The process of steroidogenesis plays a vital role in human physiology as it governs the biosynthesis of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. These three classes of steroid hormones are primarily produced in the adrenal and gonadal glands through steroidogenesis pathways. Initiated by the side chain cleavage of cholesterol (CLR), this process leads to the conversion of cholesterol into pregnenolone and isocaproic aldehyde. The enzyme CYP11A1, encoded by the CYP11A1 gene, plays a key role in catalyzing the side chain cleavage of CLR. Several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been identified in the CYP11A1 gene, which may predispose carriers to disorders associated with abnormal steroidogenesis. Specifically, missense SNPs in the CYP11A1 gene have the potential to negatively impact the interaction between CYP11A1 and CLR, thus affecting the overall metabolome of steroid hormones. In this computational study, we focused on a specific set of missense SNPs reported in the CYP11A1 gene, aiming to identify variants that directly impact the interaction between CYP11A1 and CLR. The three-dimensional structure of the CYP11A1-CLR complex was obtained from the RCSB Protein Data Bank, while missense SNPs in the CYP11A1 gene were retrieved from Ensembl. To predict the most deleterious variants, we utilized the ConSurf server, SIFT, and PolyPhen. Furthermore, we assessed the impact of induced amino acid (AA) substitutions on the CYP11A1-CLR interaction using the PRODIGY server, PyMol, and Ligplot programs. Additionally, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were conducted to analyze the effects of deleterious variants on the structural dynamics of the CYP11A1-CLR complex. Among the 8096 retrieved variants, we identified ten missense SNPs (E91K, W147G, R151W, R151Q, S391C, V392M, Q395K, Q416E, R460W, and R460Q) as deleterious for the interaction between CYP11A1 and CLR. MD simulations of the CYP11A1-CLR complexes carrying these deleterious AA substitutions revealed that Q416E, W147G, R460Q, and R460W had the most pronounced impacts on the structural dynamics of the complex. Consequently, these missense SNPs were considered the most deleterious ones. Further functional tests are recommended to assess the impact of these four missense SNPs on the enzymatic activity of CYP11A1. Moreover, Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) should be conducted to determine the significance of their association with abnormal steroidogenesis diseases in various patient groups.

Heat enhances the inhibitory effect of lipopolysaccharide on duck granulosa cell proliferation and steroid biosynthesis in vitro.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) reduces the reproductive performance of laying ducks, especially during the hot summer months. To study the underlying mechanisms, we investigated the effects of different LPS concentrations and heat on duck granulosa cell (GC) proliferation and steroid biosynthesis in vitro. We investigated GC proliferation, secretion, and activation of the MAPK pathway. The cell cycle results showed that LPS treatment alone did not significantly affect cell proliferation, whereas the mRNA expression levels of IGF2, IGFBP2, and CyclinD1 were downregulated and p27kip1 was significantly upregulated after 2000 ng/mL LPS treatment when compared to untreated cells. In steroid hormone synthesis, although LPS increased the expression of most steroid biosynthesis genes, it inhibited the expression of CYP11A1 at high LPS concentrations. High temperatures enhanced the inhibitory effect of LPS on the expression of proliferation-promoting genes. Heat significantly reduced CYP11A1 and CYP19A1 expression. In addition, the phosphorylation of P38 was significantly upregulated by high temperatures combined with LPS, whereas the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and JNK was downregulated. The relative protein expression of Bax/BCL-2 was upregulated at high temperatures in combination with LPS. Heat treatment enhanced the inhibitory effects of LPS on the proliferation and hormone biosynthesis of duck GCs in vitro.

A cytochrome P450 CYP87A4 imparts sterol side-chain cleavage in digoxin biosynthesis.

Digoxin extracted from the foxglove plant is a widely prescribed natural product for treating heart failure. It is listed as an essential medicine by the World Health Organization. However, how the foxglove plant synthesizes digoxin is mostly unknown, especially the cytochrome P450 sterol side chain cleaving enzyme (P450scc), which catalyzes the first and rate-limiting step. Here we identify the long-speculated foxglove P450scc through differential transcriptomic analysis. This enzyme converts cholesterol and campesterol to pregnenolone, suggesting that digoxin biosynthesis starts from both sterols, unlike previously reported. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that this enzyme arises from a duplicated cytochrome P450 CYP87A gene and is distinct from the well-characterized mammalian P450scc. Protein structural analysis reveals two amino acids in the active site critical for the foxglove P450scc's sterol cleavage ability. Identifying the foxglove P450scc is a crucial step toward completely elucidating digoxin biosynthesis and expanding the therapeutic applications of digoxin analogs in future work.

Mitochondrial cytochrome P450 1B1 is involved in pregnenolone synthesis in human brain cells.

Neurosteroids, which are steroids synthesized by the nervous system, can exert neuromodulatory and neuroprotective effects via genomic and nongenomic pathways. The neurosteroid and major steroid precursor pregnenolone has therapeutical potential in various diseases, such as psychiatric and pain disorders, and may play important roles in myelination, neuroinflammation, neurotransmission, and neuroplasticity. Although pregnenolone is synthesized by CYP11A1 in peripheral steroidogenic organs, our recent study showed that pregnenolone must be synthesized by another mitochondrial cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzyme other than CYP11A1 in human glial cells. Therefore, we sought to identify the CYP450 responsible for pregnenolone production in the human brain. Upon screening for CYP450s expressed in the human brain that have mitochondrial localization, we identified three enzyme candidates: CYP27A1, CYP1A1, and CYP1B1. We found that inhibition of CYP27A1 through inhibitors and siRNA knockdown did not negatively affect pregnenolone synthesis in human glial cells. Meanwhile, treatment of human glial cells with CYP1A1/CYP1B1 inhibitors significantly reduced pregnenolone production in the presence of 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol. We performed siRNA knockdown of CYP1A1 or CYP1B1 in human glial cells and found that only CYP1B1 knockdown significantly decreased pregnenolone production. Furthermore, overexpression of mitochondria-targeted CYP1B1 significantly increased pregnenolone production under basal conditions and in the presence of hydroxycholesterols and low-density lipoprotein. Inhibition of CYP1A1 and/or CYP1B1 via inhibitors or siRNA knockdown did not significantly reduce pregnenolone synthesis in human adrenal cortical cells, implying that CYP1B1 is not a major pregnenolone-producing enzyme in the periphery. These data suggest that mitochondrial CYP1B1 is involved in pregnenolone synthesis in human glial cells.