An evidence based efficacy and safety assessment of the ethnobiologicals against poisonous and non-poisonous bites used by the tribals of three westernmost districts of West Bengal, India: Anti-phospholipase A2 and genotoxic effects.

INTRODUCTION: To explore the ethnobiological wisdom of the tribals of three western districts of West Bengal, India against poisonous and non-poisonous bites and stings, a quantitative approach was adopted. These age-old yet unexplored knowledge can be utilized in finding lead-molecules against poisonous and non-poisonous animal-bites. Further, an evidence-based approach is needed to assess the venom-neutralization ability of plants by experimental studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: During 2008-2009 and 2012-2017, 11 ethnomedicinal surveys were carried out to explore the use of medicinal flora and fauna via conducting open semi-structured interviews with 47 traditional healers (THs) or informants. The retrieved dataset was statistically evaluated using seven quantitative-indexes: use-value (UV), informants'-consensus-factor (ICF), fidelity-level (FL), relative-importance (RI), cultural importance-index (CI), index of agreement on remedies (IAR) and cultural agreement-index (CAI). Anti-phospholipaseA2 (PLA2) properties of selected plant extracts were also examined. In addition, the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of the water extract of the plants showing high FL as well as significant PLA2 inhibitory potential were investigated using Allium cepa root tip assay. RESULTS: A total of 41 traditional-formulations (TFs) containing 40 plant species (of 39 genera from 28 families) and 3 animal species were prescribed by the THs. Fabaceae exhibited most number of medicinal plants. Piper nigrum (1.78) and Apis cerana indica and Crossopriza lyoni (both 0.21) exhibited the highest UV among the plants and the animals respectively. Stinging of centipede and dog/cat/hyena bite displayed highest ICF (1.00 each). Among the plants, the maximum RI (0.91) and CI (4.98) values were observed for Aristolochia indica. IAR (1.00) was recorded maximum for Achyranthes aspera, Gloriosa superba, Lycopodium cernuum, Smilax zeylanica and Streblus asper. Maximum CAI value was noted for Piper nigrum (5.5096). Among the animals, Apis cerana indica (0.31) and Crossopriza lyoni (1.52) displayed the highest RI and CI values respectively. Crossopriza lyoni (0.99) and Apis cerana indica (1.3871) exhibited maximum IAR and CAI values respectively. Plants showing higher FL exhibited higher anti-PLA2 activity via selective inhibition of human-group PLA2. In addition, Allium cepa root tip assay has indicated the safety and/or toxicity of the plant parts prescribed by the THs. Root water extracts of Aristolochia indica and Gloriosa superba exhibited significant genotoxicity and cytotoxicity. CONCLUSIONS: Three western districts of West Bengal is the natural abode for many tribal and non-tribal communities. A noteworthy correlation was established between the plants used against poisonous-bites and their anti-PLA2 activity. A few plant parts used by the THs also exhibited high toxicity. Such alternative medical practices serve as the only option in these underprivileged and backward areas during medical-exigencies.

Validation of ethnopharmacology of ayurvedic sarasvata ghrita and comparative evaluation of its neuroprotective effect with modern alcoholic and lipid based extracts in ß-amyloid induced memory impairment.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Sarasvata ghrita (SG), a polyherbal formulation from ayurveda, an ancient medicinal system of India, has been used to improve intelligence and memory, treat speech delay, speaking difficulties and low digestion power in children. AIM OF THE STUDY: Study aimed to validate the ethno use of SG in memory enhancement through systematic scientific protocol. The effect of SG and modern extracts of ingredients of SG was compared on cognitive function and neuroprotection in amyloid-ß peptide 25-35(Aß25-35) induced memory impairment in wistar rats. Further the underlying mechanism for neuroprotective activity was investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: SG was prepared as per traditional method, ethanolic extract (EE) was prepared by conventional method and lipid based extract was prepared by modern extraction method. All extracts were standardised by newly developed HPLC method with respect to marker compounds. SG, EE and LE were administered orally to male Wistar rats at doses of 100,200 and 400 mg/kg Body Weight by feeding needle for a period of 21 days after the intracerebroventricular administration of Aß25-35 bilaterally. Spatial memory of rats was tested using Morris water maze (MWM) and Radial arm maze (RAM) test. The possible underlying mechanisms for the cognitive improvement exhibited by SG, EE and LE was investigated through ex-vivo brain antioxidant effect, monoamine level estimation, acetylcholine esterase (AchE) inhibitory effect and Brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) levels estimation. RESULTS: SG, EE and LE were analyzed by HPLC method, results showed that EE extract has high percent of selected phytoconstituents as compared with SG and LE. SG and LE decrease escape latency and searching distance in a dose dependant manner during MWM test. In case of RAM significant decrease in number of errors and increase in number of correct choices indicate an elevation in retention and recall aspects of learning and memory after administration of SG an LE. SG and LE extract can efficiently prevent accumulation of ß-amyloid plaque in hippocampus region. There was increase in SOD, GSH, CAT and NO level and decrease in MDA levels in SG and LE administered animals. SG and LE have found to exhibit AchE inhibitiory activity and significant dose-dependant increase in BDNF level in the plasma. SG and LE significantly increased the levels of noradrenaline, dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in the brain. CONCLUSION: The study validated the neuroprotective activity of SG. The study concludes the extraction efficiency of SG for selected phytoconstituents is less than modern methods. However the neuroprotective activity of SG and LE was found to be greater than EE.

Reformulation of Traditional Chamomile Oil: Quality Controls and Fingerprint Presentation Based on Cluster Analysis of Attenuated Total Reflectance-Infrared Spectral Data.

Herbal oils have been widely used in Iran as medicinal compounds dating back to thousands of years in Iran. Chamomile oil is widely used as an example of traditional oil. We remade chamomile oils and tried to modify it with current knowledge and facilities. Six types of oil (traditional and modified) were prepared. Microbial limit tests and physicochemical tests were performed on them. Also, principal component analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis, and partial least squares discriminant analysis were done on the spectral data of attenuated total reflectance-infrared in order to obtain insight based on classification pattern of the samples. The results show that we can use modified versions of the chamomile oils (modified Clevenger-type apparatus method and microwave method) with the same content of traditional ones and with less microbial contaminations and better physicochemical properties.

Ayurvedic medicine in Mauritius: Profile of Ayurvedic outlet, use, sale, distribution, regulation and importation.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ayurvedic medicine (AM) is a legalised alternative traditional medical system in the multicultural tropical island of Mauritius. A panoply of Ayurvedic specialised shops/centres involved in the provision of Ayurvedic services hereafter termed as 'outlets' operates in different regions of the island and is extensively exploited by a significant number of Mauritians. Nonetheless, there is currently no study geared towards studying the status of AM and profile of Ayurvedic outlets in Mauritius and there is undoubtedly a dearth of standardized regulatory framework governing the practice of AM in Mauritius. The present study attempts to study the profile of Ayurvedic outlets, sale, distribution, regulation and importation of AM in Mauritius. AIM OF STUDY: To evaluate the characteristics profile of Ayurvedic shops/clinics/pharmacies/centres, to document common Ayurvedic products used in the treatment and management of diseases, and to analyse existing regulatory control of AM in Mauritius. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Ayurvedic outlets were identified using a random approach. Once permission granted, outlets were visited where face-to-face interviews with Ayurvedic practitioners/directors/dispensers were undertaken using a semi-structured questionnaire. The characteristics of the outlets with respect to the type of business registration, procurement and dispensing of products, registration and qualification of personnels employed amongst others were studied. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) 10 was used to classify common AM dispensed to patients. Additionally, information was sought from local authorities pertaining to existing legislation governing the importation and regulation of AM in Mauritius. RESULTS: A total of 16 Ayurvedic outlets ('pharmacies' (n=3), clinics (n=2), shops (n=5) and centres (n=6)) was surveyed. Six outlets dispensed AM strictly on prescription only after consultation with an onsite full-time employed registered Ayurvedic practitioner. Seven outlets offered AM both on prescription and over-the-counter where consultation was not mandatory. The remaining three outlets, where no Ayurvedic practitioner was employed, did not offer consultation at any time and dispensed the medicines over-the-counter most of the time. There is currently no such legal framework that acknowledges the existence of an Ayurvedic pharmacy in Mauritius and no trained Ayurvedic pharmacist was recruited in any of the outlets. It was also found that no specific requirements were in place to establish an Ayurvedic outlet in Mauritius. A wide variety of Ayurvedic formulated and single herb products were recorded to be in use against common diseases. Ayurvedic products were imported from India (n=10), purchased from local suppliers (n=6) or locally manufactured (n=1). The Traditional Medicine Board under the aegis of the pharmacy board is a regulatory body which requires Ayurvedic practitioners to be registered so as to practice AM in Mauritius. Additionally, the government has an Ayurvedic committee, under the aegis of the Pharmacy board in the Ministry of Health and Quality of Life to monitor the importation of AM. However, no legal framework has been enacted to regulate the sale of AM under prescription or under the supervision of an Ayurvedic practitioner. CONCLUSION: The current regulatory framework is such that the sale/use/distribution of AM is not strictly controlled unlike its importation. This has led to a certain form of unregulated practice in the private sector whereby the dispensing and sale of AM are being done over-the-counter without professional recommendations. It is recommended that authorities need to regulate the Ayurvedic medical system in Mauritius by amending stringent laws to ensure safety of patients.

Design and Implementation of an Elective on the Ethnopharmacology of Appalachia for the PharmD Curriculum.

Objective. To create and implement a class in ethnopharmacology that would educate student pharmacists on folk medicine, including home remedies and native plants that are used as alternative medicinal sources; active components of medicinal plants including toxicity issues and the mechanism of action of beneficial compounds, such as catechins and other flavonoids; and nutraceuticals and poisonous plants. Methods. In this three-credit hour class, herbal remedies are investigated from the standpoints of medical efficacy, potential toxicities and drug interactions with prescribed medications. Class discussions are conducted on the usefulness of remedies, the attitudes of practitioners toward traditional remedy use and the risks of relying on herbal preparations. Each student prepares a 15-minute presentation on a disease state, which covers modern pharmaceuticals and herbal or folk remedy alternatives used in that disease. Special emphasis is given to drug-herb interactions. Results. The class has gained popularity among students and consistently fills within the first hour of computerized registration. Students agree that being educated in the benefits and potential toxicities of herbal products will better prepare them to counsel their patients who use these remedies. The elective has been offered 10 times since 2007. Anecdotal comments from our alumni indicate that they have found the information to be very useful in their practice environments. Conclusion. Providing our students with a greater understanding of herbal remedies is essential to prepare them for practice. By including both the uses and potential toxicities, the student pharmacist is able to counsel her patients from a standpoint of expertise on these self-administered remedies.

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in the environs of Tara-gedam and Amba remnant forests of Libo Kemkem District, northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Remnant forests found in areas that have long been converted to agricultural landscapes are refuges of wild useful plants; and societies inhabiting them are custodians of rich indigenous botanical knowledge. This study was undertaken to document the medicinal plants used by the people living in and around Tara-gedam and Amba remnant forests, northwestern Ethiopia, together with the associated ethnomedicinal knowledge. METHODS: Data were collected from 105 informants through semi-structured interviews, guided field walk, market survey; and analyzed using standard ethnobotanical analytical tools including ranking and comparison. RESULTS: A total of 163 medicinal plant species in 145 genera and 67 families were recorded among which Zehneria scabra drew the highest community consensus. Seventy-one percent of the medicinal plants were those used for treating human ailments only, 21% for both human and livestock and 8% for livestock only. Asteraceae, with 14 species, had the highest number of medicinal plant species. The medicinal plants mainly (79.1%) belong to the shrub and herb categories and most of them were sourced from the wild habitats. Leaves and fresh plant materials were more frequently used for medicine preparation than other parts. Protected government and church forests as well as tree propagation in nurseries followed by planting them and local practices constitute the major forest conservation efforts that indirectly protect the medicinal plants in the area. Elders and healers knew more about the medicinal plants, their distribution, the local ethnomedicinal practices and knowledge transfer patterns. Though important for the local healthcare system and with potentials for modern drug discovery, both the plants and the knowledge pool are under threat. CONCLUSION: The diversity of medicinal plants and the associated indigenous knowledge of Tara-gedam and its environs are of a considerable value to the local community and beyond. There is, therefore, a need for conservation of the vegetation and the medicinal plants along with preservation of the wealth of the indigenous knowledge.

[Characteristics and innovation in projects of ethnomedicine and ethnopharmacology funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China].

The overall situation of projects of ethnomedicine and ethnopharmacology funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) since 2008 has been presented in this paper. The main source of characteristics and innovation of the funded projects were summarized, which may come from several aspects, such as the ethnomedical theories, the dominant diseases of ethnomedicine, special diseases in ethnic minorities inhabited areas, unique ethnomedical therapy, special methods for applying medication, endemic medicinal materials in ethnic minorities inhabited areas, same medicinal materials with different applications. Examples have been provided to give references to the applicants in the fields of ethnomedicine and ethnopharmacology.

Commentary: A classification system for antimicrobial activity based on MIC-values: fake or reality?

In the literature circulates a classification system for antimicrobial activity, which has no basis whatsoever. In this commentary the non-existence of this classification system will be clearly indicated.

Ethnopharmacological field studies: a critical assessment of their conceptual basis and methods.

Ethnopharmacology as a well-defined field has a relatively short history, but for centuries researchers have been interested in the observation, description, and experimental investigation of indigenous drugs and their biological activities. Today, such articles are published in a variety of journals among which the Journal of Ethnopharmacology has a prominent position as well as in book monographs. As any other area of scientific endeavour, this field requires a critical and engaged discussion about the conceptual basis, the relevant methods and the overall standards necessary for excellence. Here we review recent ethnopharmacological field studies in order to highlight achievements and future needs for improving the quality of such studies. The basis for this review is 40 field studies published in the years 2007 and 2008 in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Researchers need to have a clear vision for what and how they want to achieve a conceptually and methodologically sound approach and as in all disciplines adherence to internationally recognized methodological standards is essential. Here we review not only the basic conceptual requirements but also the minimal methodological (i.e. botanical, anthropological/historical,ethnomedical) standards and ways how to quantify ethnopharmacological information. Future uses of such information both in the context of experimental research and in applied projects highlight the multiple roles of such data generated in ethnopharmacological field studies. This review cannot be a book of recipes on how to conduct such research but highlights minimal conceptual and methodological requirements for use in future projects.

How scientific is the science in ethnopharmacology? Historical perspectives and epistemological problems.

This commentary is based on a general concern regarding the low level of self-criticism (-evaluation) in the interpretation of molecular pharmacological data published in ethnopharmacology-related journals. Reports on potentially new lead structures or pharmacological effects of medicinal plant extracts are mushrooming. At the same time, nonsense in bioassays is an increasing phenomenon in herbal medicine research. Only because a dataset is reproducible does not imply that it is meaningful. Currently, there are thousands of claims of pharmacological effects of medicinal plants and natural products. It is argued that claims to knowledge in ethnopharmacology, as in the exact sciences, should be rationally criticized if they have empirical content as it is the case with biochemical and pharmacological analyses. Here the major problem is the misemployment of the concentration-effect paradigm and the overinterpretation of data obtained in vitro. Given the almost exponential increase of scientific papers published it may be the moment to adapt to a falsificationist methodology.

Do not put too much value on conventional medicines.

About 80% of the population of the developing countries still use traditional medicines for their health care. The rational use of traditional medicines in primary health care should be based on the Guidelines for the Assessment of Herbal Medicines as developed by the World Health Organization (WHO). The protection of intellectual property on traditional medicines should also be based on the guidelines for the protection of intellectual property on traditional medicines to be developed by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). The knowledge of traditional medicines hidden and lost should be researched and the loss of natural resources used as traditional medicines should be prevented. As a new emerging field in ethnopharmacology, treatment guidelines and evidence-based evaluation guidelines for ethnoergogenics, and protection guidelines of intellectual property for ethnoergogenics should be developed and put into practice according to guidelines of the WHO and WIPO, respectively.

Ethnographic component and organism documentation in an ethnopharmacology paper: a "minimum" standard.

The ethnographic component (traditional/indigenous therapeutic uses of plants or animals, specific contexts of use, preparation, dosage, route of administration) published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (JEP) has not been consistently and fully provided in the past. In an attempt to ensure the fulfillment of these criteria, hence, the fulfillment of the scope of papers published in this journal, starting with the February, 2004 issue of JEP (vol. 90, 2004), the journal provided detailed "Guide to Authors", "Author Checklist", and models of ethnopharmacology papers. An analysis of research papers published in JEP vols. 98 and 99 showed that these papers still have not achieved full compliance with the interdisciplinarity/multidisciplinarity nature of the journal, and the discipline. Thus, a minimum standard for the ethnographic component is set down.

The failure of pharmaceuticals and the power of plants: medicinal discourse as a critique of modernity in the Amazon.

This paper examines how caregivers' medicinal discourse serves as an indirect critique of modernization, urbanization and development in the Brazilian Amazon. When caregivers in two peri-urban neighborhoods, Triunfo and Bairro da Luz, discuss medicinal plants they highlight the positive aspects of phytotherapy and associate it with traditional rural lifestyles. In contrast, they tend to emphasize the shortcomings of pharmaceuticals, which they link to modernity and urbanization. This discourse, which juxtaposes plants/tradition/positive with pharmaceuticals/modern/negative, contains counterhegemonic commentary about the failures of modernization, urbanization and development. While state sponsored development was supposed to bring prosperity to the Amazon, for many residents, like those in Bairro de Luz and Triunfo, it did not. In fact, some say development made their lives worse, claiming that poverty and poor health are among the prices they have paid. Due to the shortcomings of modernization and urbanization in other areas of their life, caregivers are ambivalent about biomedicine and the pharmaceuticals they associate with it. Moreover, because medicinal plant remedies embody traditional values, asserting they are stronger, more potent, better and more effective, especially in an urban context, is a moral commentary on the shortcomings of modernity. Finally, by insisting that traditional plant remedies are better at curing the health problems that result from modern, urban lifestyles, they are subtly asserting the superiority of tradition over modernity.