Conditional cash transfer program and child mortality: A cross-sectional analysis nested within the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort.

BACKGROUND: Brazil has made great progress in reducing child mortality over the past decades, and a parcel of this achievement has been credited to the Bolsa Família program (BFP). We examined the association between being a BFP beneficiary and child mortality (1-4 years of age), also examining how this association differs by maternal race/skin color, gestational age at birth (term versus preterm), municipality income level, and index of quality of BFP management. METHODS AND FINDINGS: This is a cross-sectional analysis nested within the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort, a population-based cohort primarily built from Brazil's Unified Registry for Social Programs (Cadastro Único). We analyzed data from 6,309,366 children under 5 years of age whose families enrolled between 2006 and 2015. Through deterministic linkage with the BFP payroll datasets, and similarity linkage with the Brazilian Mortality Information System, 4,858,253 children were identified as beneficiaries (77%) and 1,451,113 (23%) were not. Our analysis consisted of a combination of kernel matching and weighted logistic regressions. After kernel matching, 5,308,989 (84.1%) children were included in the final weighted logistic analysis, with 4,107,920 (77.4%) of those being beneficiaries and 1,201,069 (22.6%) not, with a total of 14,897 linked deaths. Overall, BFP participation was associated with a reduction in child mortality (weighted odds ratio [OR] = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.79 to 0.88; p < 0.001). This association was stronger for preterm children (weighted OR = 0.78; 95% CI: 0.68 to 0.90; p < 0.001), children of Black mothers (weighted OR = 0.74; 95% CI: 0.57 to 0.97; p < 0.001), children living in municipalities in the lowest income quintile (first quintile of municipal income: weighted OR = 0.72; 95% CI: 0.62 to 0.82; p < 0.001), and municipalities with better index of BFP management (5th quintile of the Decentralized Management Index: weighted OR = 0.76; 95% CI: 0.66 to 0.88; p < 0.001). The main limitation of our methodology is that our propensity score approach does not account for possible unmeasured confounders. Furthermore, sensitivity analysis showed that loss of nameless death records before linkage may have resulted in overestimation of the associations between BFP participation and mortality, with loss of statistical significance in municipalities with greater losses of data and change in the direction of the association in municipalities with no losses. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we observed a significant association between BFP participation and child mortality in children aged 1-4 years and found that this association was stronger for children living in municipalities in the lowest quintile of wealth, in municipalities with better index of program management, and also in preterm children and children of Black mothers. These findings reinforce the evidence that programs like BFP, already proven effective in poverty reduction, have a great potential to improve child health and survival. Subgroup analysis revealed heterogeneous results, useful for policy improvement and better targeting of BFP.

Making voluntary medical male circumcision services sustainable: Findings from Kenya's pilot models, baseline and year 1.

Voluntary medical male circumcision is a crucial HIV prevention program for men in sub-Saharan Africa. Kenya is one of the first countries to achieve high population coverage and seek to transition the program to a more sustainable structure designed to maintain coverage while making all aspects of service provision domestically owned and implemented. Using pre-defined metrics, we created and evaluated three models of circumcision service delivery (static, mobile and mixed) to identify which had potential for sustaining high circumcision coverage among 10-14-year-olds group, a historically high-demand and accessible age group, at the lowest possible cost. We implemented each model in two distinct geographic areas, one in Siaya and the other in Migori county, and assessed multiple aspects of each model's sustainability. These included numerical achievements against targets designed to reach 80% coverage over two years; quantitative expenditure outcomes including unit expenditure plus its primary drivers; and qualitative community perception of program quality and sustainability based on Likert scale. Outcome values at baseline were compared with those for year one of model implementation using bivariate linear regression, unpaired t-tests and Wilcoxon rank tests as appropriate. Across models, numerical target achievement ranged from 45-140%, with the mixed models performing best in both counties. Unit expenditures varied from approximately $57 in both countries at baseline to $44-$124 in year 1, with the lowest values in the mixed and static models. Mean key informant perception scores generally rose significantly from baseline to year 1, with a notable drop in the area of community engagement. Consistently low scores were in the aspects of domestic financing for service provision. Sustainability-focused circumcision service delivery models can successfully achieve target volumes at lower unit expenditures than existing models, but strategies for domestic financing remain a crucial challenge to address for long-term maintenance of the program.

Cost of pre-exposure prophylaxis delivery in family planning clinics to prevent HIV acquisition among adolescent girls and young women in Kisumu, Kenya.

INTRODUCTION: Oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is increasingly being implemented in sub-Saharan Africa. Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) in Kenya contribute more than half of all new infections among young people aged 15-24 years, highlighting the need for evidence on the cost of PrEP in real-world implementation to inform the budget impact, cost-effectiveness, and financial sustainability of PrEP programs. METHODS: We estimated the cost of delivering PrEP to AGYW enrolled in a PrEP implementation study in two family planning clinics in Kisumu county, located in western Kenya. We derived total annual costs and the average cost per client-month of PrEP by input type (variable or fixed) and visit type (initiation or follow-up). We estimated all costs as implemented in the study, and under implementation by the Kenyan Ministry of Health (MoH), both at the program volume observed and if the facilities were delivering PrEP at full capacity (scaled-MoH). RESULTS: For the costing period between March 2018 and March 2019, 615 HIV-negative women contributed 1,128 (502 initiation and 626 follow-up) visits. The average cost per client-month of PrEP dispensed per study protocol and per the MoH scenario was $28.92 and $14.52, respectively. If the MoH scaled the program so that facilities could see PrEP clients at capacity, the average cost per client-month of PrEP was $10.88. Medication costs accounted for the largest proportion of the total annual costs (48% in MoH scenario and 65% in the scaled-MoH scenario). CONCLUSIONS: Using data from a PrEP implementation program, we found that the cost per client-month of PrEP dispensed is reduced by 62% if PrEP delivery at the two clinics is scaled up by the MoH. Our findings are valuable for informing local resource allocation and budgetary cost projections for scale-up of PrEP delivery to AGYW. Additionally, previous cost-effectiveness studies have been limited by the use of fixed assumptions of the cost of PrEP per person-month. Our study provides cost estimates from practical data which will better inform cost-effectiveness and budget impact analyses.

Budget impact and cost-effectiveness analyses of the COBRA-BPS multicomponent hypertension management programme in rural communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

BACKGROUND: COBRA-BPS (Control of Blood Pressure and Risk Attenuation-Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka), a multi-component hypertension management programme that is led by community health workers, has been shown to be efficacious at reducing systolic blood pressure in rural communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. In this study, we aimed to assess the budget required to scale up the programme and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. METHODS: In a cluster-randomised trial of COBRA-BPS, individuals aged 40 years or older with hypertension who lived in 30 rural communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka were deemed eligible for inclusion. Costs were quantified prospectively at baseline and during 2 years of the trial. All costs, including labour, rental, materials and supplies, and contracted services were recorded, stratified by programme activity. Incremental costs of scaling up COBRA-BPS to all eligible adults in areas covered by community health workers were estimated from the health ministry (public payer) perspective. FINDINGS: Between April 1, 2016, and Feb 28, 2017, 11 510 individuals were screened and 2645 were enrolled and included in the study. Participants were examined between May 8, 2016, and March 31, 2019. The first-year per-participant costs for COBRA-BPS were US$10·65 for Bangladesh, $10·25 for Pakistan, and $6·42 for Sri Lanka. Per-capita costs were $0·63 for Bangladesh, $0·29 for Pakistan, and $1·03 for Sri Lanka. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were $3430 for Bangladesh, $2270 for Pakistan, and $4080 for Sri Lanka, per cardiovascular disability-adjusted life year averted, which showed COBRA-BPS to be cost-effective in all three countries relative to the WHO-CHOICE threshold of three times gross domestic product per capita in each country. Using this threshold, the cost-effectiveness acceptability curves predicted that the probability of COBRA-BPS being cost-effective is 79·3% in Bangladesh, 85·2% in Pakistan, and 99·8% in Sri Lanka. INTERPRETATION: The low cost of scale-up and the cost-effectiveness of COBRA-BPS suggest that this programme is a viable strategy for responding to the growing cardiovascular disease epidemic in rural communities in low-income and middle-income countries where community health workers are present, and that it should qualify as a priority intervention across rural settings in south Asia and in other countries with similar demographics and health systems to those examined in this study. FUNDING: The UK Department of Health and Social Care, the UK Department for International Development, the Global Challenges Research Fund, the UK Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust.

Assessing the costs and outcomes of control programmes for sexually transmitted infections: a systematic review of economic evaluations.

OBJECTIVE: To identify economic evaluations of interventions to control STIs and HIV targeting young people, and to assess how costs and outcomes are measured in these studies. DESIGN: Systematic review. DATA SOURCES: Seven databases were searched (Medline (Ovid), EMBASE (Ovid), Web of Science, PsycINFO, NHS Economic Evaluation Database, NHS Health Technology Assessment and Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects) from January 1999 to April 2019. Key search terms were STIs (chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis) and HIV, cost benefit, cost utility, economic evaluation, public health, screening, testing and control. REVIEW METHODS: Studies were included that measured costs and outcomes to inform an economic evaluation of any programme to control STIs and HIV targeting individuals predominantly below 30 years of age at risk of, or affected by, one or multiple STIs and/or HIV in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries. Data were extracted and tabulated and included study results and characteristics of economic evaluations. Study quality was assessed using the Philips and BMJ checklists. Results were synthesised narratively. RESULTS: 9530 records were screened and categorised. Of these, 31 were included for data extraction and critical appraisal. The majority of studies assessed the cost-effectiveness or cost-utility of screening interventions for chlamydia from a provider perspective. The main outcome measures were major outcomes averted and quality-adjusted life years. Studies evaluated direct medical costs, for example, programme costs and 11 included indirect costs, such as productivity losses. The study designs were predominantly model-based with significant heterogeneity between the models. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: None of the economic evaluations encompassed aspects of equity or context, which are highly relevant to sexual health decision-makers. The review demonstrated heterogeneity in approaches to evaluate costs and outcomes for STI/HIV control programmes. The low quality of available studies along with the limited focus, that is, almost all studies relate to chlamydia, highlight the need for high-quality economic evaluations to inform the commissioning of sexual health services.

Financial Feasibility Analysis of a Culturally and Linguistically Competent Hispanic Kidney Transplant Program.

BACKGROUND: In 2006, Northwestern Medicine implemented a culturally targeted and linguistically congruent Hispanic Kidney Transplant Program (HKTP). The HKTP has been associated with a reduction in Hispanic/Latino disparities in live donor kidney transplantation. This article assessed the financial feasibility of implementing the HKTP intervention at 2 other transplant centers. METHODS: We examined the impact of the HKTP on staffing costs compared with the total transplant center costs using data from monthly time studies conducted among transplant staff involved in the HKTP. Time studies were conducted during the HKTP preimplementation (2016) and implementation (2017) phases. Labor costs were estimated using data from the time studies and mean salaries from the Department of Labor. We retrospectively examined kidney acquisition and transplant costs at both centers in 2016 and 2017 using data from the Medicare cost reports. RESULTS: During preimplementation, center A staff (n = 21) committed 764 hours ($44 607), and center B staff (n = 15) committed 800 hours ($45 193) to establish the HKTP. During implementation, center A staff (n = 19) committed 1125 hours ($55 594), and center B staff (n = 24) committed 1396 hours ($64 170), in delivering the HKTP. Overall, the total costs from the staffing time involved in the HKTP encompassed <1.0% per year (2016 and 2017) of each center's annual total costs. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest the financial feasibility of implementing the HKTP and present a potential business case for the HKTP's implementation at other transplant centers to reduce health disparities in live donor kidney transplantation.

Strategies for Sustainability of University-Based Medical Laboratory Sciences Programs.

The COVID-19 pandemic has taken a major toll on the economy and funding for public education. For that reason, the pandemic has a worrisome effect on the sustainability of university/college based Medical Laboratory Sciences MLS training programs. Stakeholders of university-based MLS programs include university administrators, students, clinical affiliates and faculty. Each group has specific goals and challenges that affect the sustainability of the program. This report details strategies that can be used to satisfy the goals specific to key stakeholders that lead to sustainability. These strategies apply in pandemic times and in the back-to-normal future.

Is tobacco Quitline cost effective in India?

Quitlines are effective, evidence-based tobacco cessation interventions that help tobacco users quit through a variety of services. The present study was done to evaluate the cost effectiveness of the National Tobacco Quitline Service (NTQLS). We calculated twoyear program use and costs for establishment, salary of the staff, media promotions, intervention services, Quitline registration calls and the number of quitters since inception of NTQLS in the year 2016, we examined whether NTQLS is cost-effective or not. Out of 63,350 callers, 9420 (97.9% males) callers with the mean ±SD age at 37.5±12.6 years; were registered for tobacco cessation counselling services at the National Tobacco Quitline Services (NTQLS) between 30th May 2016 and 31st May 2018. 3012 (32%) quitted their tobacco use till the last proactive calls. Average cost per completed counselling was 22.37 US$. Our study concludes that Tobacco Quitline as a tobacco control intervention is an excellent investment and cost-effective measure in India. Average cost per quitter at 69.96 US$ is comparatively very low to other country's Quitline, representing the ideal utilization of funds.

[The cost of the therapeutic education program "Eat better, move more through nutrition education" in patients with breast cancer]. / Coût du programme d'éducation thérapeutique « Mieux manger, mieux bouger à l'aide de l'éducation nutritionnelle ¼ chez les patientes atteintes d'un cancer du sein.

INTRODUCTION: Since the life expectancy of women with breast cancer has increased, tertiary prevention, through the Therapeutic Patient Education (TPE), is now a part of patient support. The main objective of this pilot study is to evaluate the cost of a nutrition and physical activity TPE program intended to help women with breast cancer in the management of their weight. METHODS: This study is a description of costs, based on the micro-costing method, of the first two years of the program, conducted on an outpatient basis, at the Cancer Center Leon Berard, Lyon, France, with the involvement of a dietician and a physical activity trainer. Only the direct costs were taken into account, from the hospital's perspective, in Euro 2016. Sensitivity analyses were also conducted. RESULTS: Sixty-five patients were included in the study in 2014/2015. Their mean age was 52 years, the majority of them were in sick leave (65 %). In most cases, they had undergone surgery (95 %) and chemotherapy (71 %). The average cost per patient of the program was 541.04€ (SD 88.44€; 95 % IC [520.06-562.03]) excluding overhead costs, i.e. 687.13€ overhead costs included. The unit cost of the dietician was the most sensitive parameters. CONCLUSION: This cost study, an accurate estimate of the production costs, allows to inform the decision-maker in term of pricing of such a program and to make the necessary adjustments in order to optimize the organization of this activity.

Equity and Distributional Impact on Stunting of a Nutritional Package Targeting Children Aged 6-36 Months in China: Findings from a Modeling Study.

BACKGROUND: Despite rapid economic development, child stunting remains a persistent problem in China. Stunting prevalence varies greatly across geographical regions and wealth groups. To address child undernutrition, the Ying Yang Bao (YYB) nutritional package has been piloted in China since 2001. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to evaluate the distributional impact of a hypothetical rollout of the YYB nutritional package on child stunting across provinces and wealth groups in China, with a specific focus on equity. METHODS: We used data from China Family Panel Studies and built on extended cost-effectiveness analysis methods. We estimated the distributional impact of a 12-month YYB program targeting children aged 6-36 months across 25 provinces and two wealth groups along three dimensions: the cost of the YYB program; the number of child stunting cases averted by YYB; and the cost per stunting case averted. Children in each province were divided into poverty and non-poverty groups based on the international poverty line of $5.50 per day. We also conducted a range of sensitivity analyses. RESULTS: We showed that 75% coverage of YYB could avert 1.9 million stunting cases among children aged 6-36 months, including 1.3 million stunting cases among children living under the poverty line, at a total cost of ¥5.4-6.2 billion ($1.5-1.8 billion) depending on the type of YYB delivery. The cost per stunting case averted would greatly vary across Chinese provinces and wealth groups, ranging from ¥800 (around $220, Chongqing province) to ¥23,300 (around $6600, Jilin province). In most provinces, the cost per stunting case averted would be lower for children living under the poverty line. CONCLUSIONS: YYB could be a pro-poor nutritional intervention package that brings substantial health benefits to poor and marginalized Chinese children, but with large variations in value for money across provinces and wealth groups. This analysis points to the need for prioritization across provinces and a targeted approach for YYB rollout in China.

Efficacy and cost-effectiveness of subsidized ridesharing as a drunk driving intervention in Columbus, OH.

BACKGROUND: No economic evaluations exist of free or subsidized ridesharing services designed to reduce impaired driving. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects and economics of a 17-weekend program that provided rideshare coupons good for free one-way or round trips to/from the hospitality zones in Columbus, Ohio, coupled with a modest increase in enforcement and a media campaign that used messaging about enforcement to promote usage. METHODS: Web surveys of riders and intercept surveys of foot traffic in the hospitality zones yielded data on the reduction in driving after drinking and the change in alcohol consumption associated with coupon use. We estimated crash changes from trip data using national studies, then confirmed with an ARIMA analysis of monthly police crash reports. Costs and output data came from program and rideshare company records. RESULTS: 70.8% of 19,649 responding coupon redeemers said coupon use reduced the chance they would drive after drinking. An estimated 1 in 4,310 drink-driving trips results in an alcohol-attributable crash, so the coupons prevented an estimated 3.2 crashes. Consistent with that minimal change, the ARIMA analysis did not detect a drunk-driving crash reduction. Self-reports indicated alcohol consumption rose by an average of 0.4 drinks per coupon redeemer, possibly with an equal rise among people who rode with the redeemer. The program cost almost $650,000 and saved an estimated 1.8 years of healthy life. Across a range of discount rates and values for a year of healthy life, it cost $366,000 to $791,000 per year of healthy life saved. Its estimated benefit-cost ratio was between 0.31 and 0.59, meaning it cost far more than it saved. CONCLUSIONS: Ridesharing, coupled with a media campaign and increased enforcement, was not a cost-effective drunk-driving intervention. Although it reduced drink-driving crashes and saved years of healthy life, those savings were modest and expensive. Moreover, the self-reported increase in participant drinking imposed countervailing risks. Even sensitivity analyses that potentially overestimate the benefits and underestimate the costs indicate a significant imbalance between program costs and savings. Any funding devoted to ridesharing would divert scarce resources from interventions with benefit-cost ratios above 1. Thus, our evaluation suggests that governments should not devote energy or resources to ridesharing programs if their primary objective is to reduce drink-driving or harmful alcohol use.

Costs and effectiveness of a culturally tailored communication training program to increase cultural competence among multi-disciplinary care management teams.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have demonstrated that cultural competence improves patient-provider communication, which promotes adherence to established care plans and improves patient satisfaction and health outcomes. However, there is very little data available regarding the costs associated with the development and implementation of cultural competence training, or the cost-effectiveness of these programs. To that end, this evaluation aims to describe costs, program effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness of a culturally tailored communication training program to improve cultural competence among multi-disciplinary care management teams. METHODS: As part of a region-wide quality improvement initiative to reduce healthcare disparities among African American patients with uncontrolled hypertension, three multi-disciplinary care management teams were invited to participate in a two-part communication training program. A paired samples t-test was used to assess program effectiveness based on participant responses to a validated cultural competence self-assessment survey 2 weeks before and after the training program. A micro-costing approach was used to estimate programmatic costs for content development and delivery. Cost-effectiveness was then determined using the average cost-effectiveness ratio, and sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the impact of participant mix on this result. RESULTS: All scores (n = 17) improved after training; however, only the culturally competent behaviors (CCB) subscale change was statistically significant (p = 0.02). Overall program costs were $5754.19. The average program cost per participant was $138.51, with an ACER of $337.83 per 1-unit increase in CCB score. Sensitivity analyses yielded a range of ACERs between $122.59 and $457.07, where all participants are support staff or nurses, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Culturally tailored communication training increases how frequently participants demonstrate culturally competent behaviors and may be a cost-effective intervention for care management teams to address individual cultural competence. Detailed costs associated with cultural competence training are largely unavailable in the literature; as such, these data may serve as a financial framework for organizations considering the implementation of similar programs.

An Enhanced Approach for Economic Evaluation of Long-Term Benefits of School-Based Health Promotion Programs.

Chronic diseases constitute a tremendous public health burden globally. Poor nutrition, inactive lifestyles, and obesity are established independent risk factors for chronic diseases. Public health decision-makers are in desperate need of effective and cost-effective programs that prevent chronic diseases. To date, most economic evaluations consider the effect of these programs on body weight, without considering their effects on other risk factors (nutrition and physical activity). We propose an economic evaluation approach that considers program effects on multiple risk factors rather than on a single risk factor. For demonstration, we developed an enhanced model that incorporates health promotion program effects on four risk factors (weight status, physical activity, and fruit and vegetable consumption). Relative to this enhanced model, a model that considered only the effect on weight status produced incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) estimates for quality-adjusted life years that were 1% to 43% higher, and ICER estimates for years with chronic disease prevented that were 1% to 26% higher. The corresponding estimates for return on investment were 1% to 20% lower. To avoid an underestimation of the economic benefits of chronic disease prevention programs, we recommend economic evaluations consider program effects on multiple risk factors.

Three Pathways of Seclusion Reduction Programs to Sustainability: Ten Years Follow Up in Psychiatry.

From 2004 onwards, above 50 seclusion reduction programs (SRP) were developed, implemented and evaluated in the Netherlands. However, little is known about their sustainability, as to which extent obtained reduction could be maintained. This study monitored three programs over ten years seeking to identify important factors contributing to this. We reviewed documents of three SRPs that received governmental funding to reduce seclusion. Next, we interviewed key figures from each institute, to investigate the SRP documents and their implementation in practice. We monitored the number of seclusion events and the number of seclusion days with the Argus rating scale over ten years in three separate phases: 2008-2010, 2011-2014 and 2015-2017. As we were interested in sustainability after the governmental funding ended in 2012, our focus was on the last phase. Although in different rate, all mental health institutes showed some decline in seclusion events during and immediately after the SRP. After end of funding one institute showed numbers going up and down. The second showed an increase in number of seclusion days. The third institute displayed a sustained and continuous reduction in use of seclusion, even several years after the received funding. This institute was the only one with an ongoing institutional SRP after the governmental funding. To sustain accomplished seclusion reduction, a continuous effort is needed for institutional awareness of the use of seclusion, even after successful implementation of SRPs. If not, successful SRPs implemented in psychiatry will easily relapse in traditional use of seclusion.

Financial Justification for Interventional Pulmonology Programs: Terminology and Programmatic Models.

Interventional pulmonology programs provide clinical benefit to patients and are financially sustainable. To appreciate and illustrate the economic value of interventional pulmonology programs to hospital systems, physicians must have an understanding of basic health-care finance. Total revenue, adjusted gross revenue, contribution margin, variable direct costs, and indirect costs are terms that are essential for understanding the finances of bronchoscopy. Command of such vocabulary and its application is crucial for interventional pulmonologists to successfully establish financially sustainable bronchoscopy programs. Two significant features of an economically sustainable bronchoscopy program are high procedural volume and low direct cost per case. Interventional pulmonology programs are valuable to the patients being served and hospitals as a whole. Consideration of the various factors needed to maintain financial sustainability is essential to improve the quality of care for patients because the cost of care remains a critical driver in defining value.

Detachable low dead space syringes for the prevention of hepatitis C among people who inject drugs in Bristol, UK: an economic evaluation.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Traditional detachable syringes used by people who inject drugs (PWID) retain larger volumes of blood when the plunger is depressed than syringes with fixed needles-referred to as high (HDSS) and low dead space syringes (LDSS), respectively. Evidence suggests that using HDSS may result in greater hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission risk than LDSS. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of an intervention to introduce detachable LDSS in a needle and syringe programme (NSP). DESIGN: HCV transmission and disease progression model with cost-effectiveness analysis using a health-care perspective. Detachable LDSS are associated with increased costs (£0.008) per syringe, yearly staff training costs (£536) and an estimated decreased risk (by 47.5%) of HCV transmission compared with HDSS. The intervention was modelled for 10 years, with costs and health benefits (quality-adjusted life-years: QALYs) tracked over 50 years. SETTING: Bristol, UK. PARTICIPANTS AND CASES: PWID attending NSP. INTERVENTION AND COMPARATOR: Gradual replacement of HDSS at NSP, with 8, 58 and 95% of HDSS being replaced by detachable LDSS in 2016, 2017 and 2018, respectively. Comparator was continuing use of HDSS. MEASUREMENTS: Net monetary benefit. Benefits were measured in QALYs. FINDINGS: Introducing detachable LDSS was associated with a small increase in intervention costs (£21 717) compared with not introducing detachable LDSS, but considerable savings in HCV-related treatment and care costs (£4 138 118). Overall cost savings were £4 116 401 over 50 years and QALY gains were 1000, with an estimated 30% reduction in new infections over the 10-year intervention period. In all sensitivity analyses, detachable LDSS resulted in cost savings and additional QALYs. Threshold analyses suggested that detachable LDSS would need to reduce HCV transmission risk of HDSS by 0.26% to be cost-saving and 0.04% to be cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: Replacing high dead space syringes with detachable low dead space syringes in needle and syringe programmes in the United Kingdom is likely to be a cost-saving approach for reducing hepatitis C virus transmission.

Evaluating the Cost Effectiveness of a Suicide Prevention Campaign Implemented in Ontario, Canada.

BACKGROUND: Although suicide-prevention campaigns have been implemented in numerous countries, Canada has yet to implement a strategy nationally. This is the first study to examine the cost utility of the implementation of a multidimensional suicide-prevention program that combines several interventions over a 50-year time horizon. METHODS: We used Markov modeling to capture the dynamic changes to health status and estimate the incremental cost per quality-adjusted life-year gained over a 50-year period for Ontario residents for a suicide-prevention strategy compared to no intervention. The strategy consisted of a package of interventions geared towards preventing suicide including a public health awareness campaign, increased identification of individuals at risk, increased training of primary-care physicians, and increased treatment post-suicide attempt. Four health states were captured by the Markov model: (1) alive and no recent suicide attempt; (2) suicide attempt; (3) death by suicide; (4) death (other than suicide). Analyses were from a societal perspective where all costs, irrespective of payer, were included. We used a probabilistic analysis to test the robustness of the model results to both variation and uncertainty in model parameters. RESULTS: Over the 50-year period, the suicide-prevention campaign had an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $18,853 (values are in Canadian dollars) per QALY gained. In all one-way sensitivity analyses, the ICER remained under $50,000/QALY. In the probabilistic analysis, there was a probability of 94.8% that the campaign was cost effective at a willingness-to-pay of $50,000/QALY (95% confidence interval of ICER probabilistic distribution: 2650-62,375). Among the current population, the intervention was predicted to result in the prevention of 4454 suicides after 50 years (1033 by year 10; 2803 by year 25). A healthcare payer perspective sensitivity analysis showed an ICER of $21,096.14/QALY. INTERPRETATION: These findings demonstrate that a suicide-prevention campaign in Ontario is very likely a cost-effective intervention to reduce the incidence of suicide and suggest suicide-prevention campaigns are likely to be cost effective for some other Canadian provinces and potentially other countries.

Economic value of community-based services for problematic sexual behaviors in youth: A mixed-method cost-effectiveness analysis.

BACKGROUND: Problematic sexual behavior in youth represents a significant public health problem in need of evidence-based treatments. Unfortunately, such treatments are not available in most communities. OBJECTIVE: This study used a mixed quantitative-qualitative approach to investigate the economics of the implementation of Problematic Sexual Behavior - Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (PSB-CBT), an evidence-based treatment for problem sexual behaviors in youth. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Youth (N = 413) participated in PSB-CBT at six program sites in youth service agencies across the United States. METHOD: We used cost-effectiveness ratios (CERs) to compare the direct and indirect costs of PSB-CBT to self- and caregiver-reported youth clinical outcomes (i.e., problem sexual behavior as well as secondary behavioral health problems). CERs represented the cost of achieving one standard unit of change on a measure (i.e., d = 1.0). The design and interpretation of those quantitative analyses were informed by qualitative themes about program costs and benefits that were derived from interviews with 59 therapists, administrators, and stakeholders. RESULTS: CERs (i.e., $ per SD) were $1,772 per youth for problem sexual behavior and ranged from $2,867 to $4,899 per youth for secondary outcomes. These quantitative results, considered alongside the qualitative perspectives of interviewees, suggested that the implementation of PSB-CBT was cost-effective. The results were robust to uncertainty in key parameters under most, but not all, conditions. CONCLUSIONS: The results have important implications for decisions made by administrators, policymakers, and therapists regarding use of community-based approaches to address problematic sexual behavior of youth.

Clinical outcome and cost-effectiveness of a 1-year nutritional intervention programme in COPD patients with low muscle mass: The randomized controlled NUTRAIN trial.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The efficacy of nutritional intervention to enhance short- and long-term outcomes of pulmonary rehabilitation in COPD is still unclear, hence this paper aims to investigate the clinical outcome and cost-effectiveness of a 12-month nutritional intervention strategy in muscle-wasted COPD patients. METHODS: Prior to a 4-month pulmonary rehabilitation programme, 81 muscle-wasted COPD patients (51% males, aged 62.5 ± 0.9 years) with moderate airflow obstruction (FEV1 55.1 ± 2.2% predicted) and impaired exercise capacity (Wmax 63.5 ± 2.4% predicted) were randomized to 3 portions of nutritional supplementation per day (enriched with leucine, vitamin D and polyunsaturated fatty acids) [NUTRITION] or PLACEBO (phase 1). In the unblinded 8-month maintenance phase (phase 2), both groups received structured feedback on their physical activity level assessed by accelerometry. NUTRITION additionally received 1 portion of supplemental nutrition per day and motivational interviewing-based nutritional counselling. A 3-month follow-up (phase 3) was included. RESULTS: After 12 months, physical capacity measured by quadriceps muscle strength and cycle endurance time were not different, but physical activity was higher in NUTRITION than in PLACEBO (Δ1030 steps/day, p = 0.025). Plasma levels of the enriched nutrients (p < 0.001) were higher in NUTRITION than PLACEBO. Trends towards weight gain in NUTRITION and weight loss in PLACEBO led to a significant between-group difference after 12 months (Δ1.54 kg, p = 0.041). The HADS anxiety and depression scores improved in NUTRITION only (Δ-1.92 points, p = 0.037). Generic quality of life (EQ-5D) was decreased in PLACEBO but not in NUTRITION (between-group difference after 15 months 0.072 points, p = 0.009). Overall motivation towards exercising and healthy eating was high and did not change significantly after 12 months; only amotivation towards healthy eating yielded a significant between-group difference (Δ1.022 points, p = 0.015). The cost per quality-adjusted life-year after 15 months was EUR 16,750. CONCLUSIONS: Nutritional intervention in muscle-wasted patients with moderate COPD does not enhance long-term outcome of exercise training on physical capacity but ameliorates plasma levels of the supplemented nutrients, total body weight, physical activity and generic health status, at an acceptable increase of costs for patients with high disease burden.