Overexpression of GPX2 gene regulates the development of porcine preadipocytes and skeletal muscle cells through MAPK signaling pathway.

Glutathione peroxidase 2 (GPX2) is a selenium-dependent enzyme and protects cells against oxidative damage. Recently, GPX2 has been identified as a candidate gene for backfat and feed efficiency in pigs. However, it is unclear whether GPX2 regulates the development of porcine preadipocytes and skeletal muscle cells. In this study, adenoviral gene transfer was used to overexpress GPX2. Our findings suggest that overexpression of GPX2 gene inhibited proliferation of porcine preadipocytes. And the process is accompanied by the reduction of the p-p38. GPX2 inhibited adipogenic differentiation and promoted lipid degradation, while ERK1/2 was reduced and p-p38 was increased. Proliferation of porcine skeletal muscle cells was induced after GPX2 overexpression, was accompanied by activation in JNK, ERK1/2, and p-p38. Overexpression methods confirmed that GPX2 has a promoting function in myoblastic differentiation. ERK1/2 pathway was activated and p38 was suppressed during the process. This study lays a foundation for the functional study of GPX2 and provides theoretical support for promoting subcutaneous fat reduction and muscle growth.

Septin 7 interacts with Numb to preserve sarcomere structural organization and muscle contractile function.

Here, we investigated the mechanisms by which aging-related reductions of the levels of Numb in skeletal muscle fibers contribute to loss of muscle strength and power, two critical features of sarcopenia. Numb is an adaptor protein best known for its critical roles in development, including asymmetric cell division, cell-type specification, and termination of intracellular signaling. Numb expression is reduced in old humans and mice. We previously showed that, in mouse skeletal muscle fibers, Numb is localized to sarcomeres where it is concentrated near triads; conditional inactivation of Numb and a closely related protein Numb-like (Numbl) in mouse myofibers caused weakness, disorganization of sarcomeres, and smaller mitochondria with impaired function. Here, we found that a single knockout of Numb in myofibers causes reduction in tetanic force comparable to a double Numb, Numbl knockout. We found by proteomics analysis of protein complexes isolated from C2C12 myotubes by immunoprecipitation using antibodies against Numb that Septin 7 is a potential Numb-binding partner. Septin 7 is a member of the family of GTP-binding proteins that organize into filaments, sheets, and rings, and is considered part of the cytoskeleton. Immunofluorescence evaluation revealed a partial overlap of staining for Numb and Septin 7 in myofibers. Conditional, inducible knockouts of Numb led to disorganization of Septin 7 staining in myofibers. These findings indicate that Septin 7 is a Numb-binding partner and suggest that interactions between Numb and Septin 7 are critical for structural organization of the sarcomere and muscle contractile function.

PHF2 regulates sarcomeric gene transcription in myogenesis.

Myogenesis is regulated mainly by transcription factors known as Myogenic Regulatory Factors (MRFs), and the transcription is affected by epigenetic modifications. However, the epigenetic regulation of myogenesis is poorly understood. Here, we focused on the epigenomic modification enzyme, PHF2, which demethylates histone 3 lysine 9 dimethyl (H3K9me2) during myogenesis. Phf2 mRNA was expressed during myogenesis, and PHF2 was localized in the nuclei of myoblasts and myotubes. We generated Phf2 knockout C2C12 myoblasts using the CRISPR/Cas9 system and analyzed global transcriptional changes via RNA-sequencing. Phf2 knockout (KO) cells 2 d post differentiation were subjected to RNA sequencing. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that Phf2 KO impaired the expression of the genes related to skeletal muscle fiber formation and muscle cell development. The expression levels of sarcomeric genes such as Myhs and Mybpc2 were severely reduced in Phf2 KO cells at 7 d post differentiation, and H3K9me2 modification of Mybpc2, Mef2c and Myh7 was increased in Phf2 KO cells at 4 d post differentiation. These findings suggest that PHF2 regulates sarcomeric gene expression via epigenetic modification.

SETDB1 modulates the TGFß response in Duchenne muscular dystrophy myotubes.

Overactivation of the transforming growth factor-ß (TGFß) signaling in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a major hallmark of disease progression, leading to fibrosis and muscle dysfunction. Here, we investigated the role of SETDB1 (SET domain, bifurcated 1), a histone lysine methyltransferase involved in muscle differentiation. Our data show that, following TGFß induction, SETDB1 accumulates in the nuclei of healthy myotubes while being already present in the nuclei of DMD myotubes where TGFß signaling is constitutively activated. Transcriptomics revealed that depletion of SETDB1 in DMD myotubes leads to down-regulation of TGFß target genes coding for secreted factors involved in extracellular matrix remodeling and inflammation. Consequently, SETDB1 silencing in DMD myotubes abrogates the deleterious effect of their secretome on myoblast differentiation by impairing myoblast pro-fibrotic response. Our findings indicate that SETDB1 potentiates the TGFß-driven fibrotic response in DMD muscles, providing an additional axis for therapeutic intervention.

Oleocanthal Protects C2C12 Myotubes against the Pro-Catabolic and Anti-Myogenic Action of Stimuli Able to Induce Muscle Wasting In Vivo.

Oleocanthal (OC) is a monophenol of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) endowed with antibiotic, cardioprotective and anticancer effects, among others, mainly in view of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. OC has been largely investigated in terms of its anticancer activity, in Alzheimer disease and in collagen-induced arthritis; however, the possibility that it can also affect muscle biology has been totally overlooked so far. This study is the first to describe that OC modulates alterations induced in C2C12 myotubes by stimuli known to induce muscle wasting in vivo, namely TNF-α, or in the medium conditioned by the C26 cachexia-inducing tumor (CM-C26). C2C12 myotubes were exposed to CM-C26 or TNF-α in the presence or absence of OC for 24 and 48 h and analyzed by immunofluorescence and Western blotting. In combination with TNF-α or CM-C26, OC was revealed to be able to restore both the myotube's original size and morphology and normal levels of both atrogin-1 and MuRF1. OC seems unable to impinge on the autophagic-lysosomal proteolytic system or protein synthesis. Modulations towards normal levels of the expression of molecules involved in myogenesis, such as Pax7, myogenin and MyHC, were also observed in the myotube cultures exposed to OC and TNF-α or CM-C26. In conclusion, the data presented here show that OC exerts a protective action in C2C12 myotubes exposed to TNF-α or CM-C26, with mechanisms likely involving the downregulation of ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent proteolysis and the partial relief of myogenic differentiation impairment.

Myokine Secretion following an Aerobic Exercise Intervention in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes with or without Exercise Resistance.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is characterized by muscle metabolic dysfunction that exercise can minimize, but some patients do not respond to an exercise intervention. Myokine secretion is intrinsically altered in patients with T2D, but the role of myokines in exercise resistance in this patient population has never been studied. We sought to determine if changes in myokine secretion were linked to the response to an exercise intervention in patients with T2D. The participants followed a 10-week aerobic exercise training intervention, and patients with T2D were grouped based on muscle mitochondrial function improvement (responders versus non-responders). We measured myokines in serum and cell-culture medium of myotubes derived from participants pre- and post-intervention and in response to an in vitro model of muscle contraction. We also quantified the expression of genes related to inflammation in the myotubes pre- and post-intervention. No significant differences were detected depending on T2D status or response to exercise in the biological markers measured, with the exception of modest differences in expression patterns for certain myokines (IL-1ß, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-15). Further investigation into the molecular mechanisms involving myokines may explain exercise resistance with T2D; however, the role in metabolic adaptations to exercise in T2D requires further investigation.

An engineered in vitro model of the human myotendinous junction.

The myotendinous junction (MTJ) is a vulnerable region at the interface of skeletal muscle and tendon that forms an integrated mechanical unit. This study presents a technique for the spatially restrictive co-culture of human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived skeletal myocytes and primary tenocytes for two-dimensional modeling of the MTJ. Micropatterned lanes of extracellular matrix and a 2-well culture chamber define the initial regions of occupation. On day 1, both lines occupy less than 20 % of the initially vacant interstitial zone, referred to henceforth as the junction. Myocyte-tenocyte interdigitations are observed by day 7. Immunocytochemistry reveals enhanced organization and alignment of patterned myocyte and tenocyte features, as well as differential expression of multiple MTJ markers. On day 24, electrically stimulated junction myocytes demonstrate negative contractile strains, while positive tensile strains are exhibited by mechanically passive tenocytes at the junction. Unpatterned tenocytes distal to the junction experience significantly decreased strains in comparison to cells at the interface. Unpatterned myocytes have impaired organization and uncoordinated contractile behavior. These findings suggest that this platform is capable of inducing myocyte-tenocyte junction formation and mechanical coupling similar to the native MTJ, showing transduction of force across the cell-cell interface. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The myotendinous junction (MTJ) is an integrated structure that transduces force across the muscle-tendon boundary, making the region vulnerable to strain injury. Despite the clinical relevance, previous in vitro models of the MTJ lack the structure and mechanical accuracy of the native tissue and have difficulty transmitting force across the cell-cell interface. This study demonstrates an in vitro model of the MTJ, using spatially restrictive cues to inform human myocyte-tenocyte interactions and architecture. The model expressed MTJ markers and developed anisotropic myocyte-tenocyte integrations that resemble the native tissue and allow for force transduction from contracting myocytes to passive tenocyte regions. As such, this study presents a system capable of investigating development, injury, and pathology in the human MTJ.

Skeletal Muscle Heat Shock Protein Content and the Repeated Bout Effect.

The "Repeated Bout Effect" (RBE) occurs when a skeletal muscle is preconditioned with a few lengthening contractions (LC) prior to exposing the muscle to a greater number of LC. The preconditioning (PC) results in significantly less damage and preservation of force. Since it takes only a few LC to increase muscle heat shock protein (HSP) content, it was of interest to examine the relationship between HSPs and the RBE. To do this, one tibialis anterior (TA) muscle from Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 5/group) was preconditioned with either 0, 5, or 15 lengthening contractions (LC) and exposed to a treatment of 60 LC 48 h later. Preconditioning TA muscles with 15 LC, but not 5 LC, significantly elevated muscle αB-crystallin (p < 0.05), HSP25 (p < 0.05), and HSP72 content (p < 0.001). These preconditioned TA muscles also showed a significantly (p < 0.05) reduced loss of active torque throughout the subsequent 60 LC. While there was a trend for all preconditioned muscles to maintain higher peak torque levels throughout the 60 LC, no significant differences were detected between the groups. Morphologically, preconditioned muscles appeared to show less discernible muscle fiber damage. In conclusion, an elevated skeletal muscle HSP content from preconditioning may contribute to the RBE.

Cornflower Extract and Its Active Components Alleviate Dexamethasone-Induced Muscle Wasting by Targeting Cannabinoid Receptors and Modulating Gut Microbiota.

Sarcopenia, a decline in muscle mass and strength, can be triggered by aging or medications like glucocorticoids. This study investigated cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) water extract (CC) as a potential protective agent against DEX-induced muscle wasting in vitro and in vivo. CC and its isolated compounds mitigated oxidative stress, promoted myofiber growth, and boosted ATP production in C2C12 myotubes. Mechanistically, CC reduced protein degradation markers, increased mitochondrial content, and activated protein synthesis signaling. Docking analysis suggested cannabinoid receptors (CB) 1 and 2 as potential targets of CC compounds. Specifically, graveobioside A from CC inhibited CB1 and upregulated CB2, subsequently stimulating protein synthesis and suppressing degradation. In vivo, CC treatment attenuated DEX-induced muscle wasting, as evidenced by enhanced grip strength, exercise performance, and modulation of muscle gene expression related to differentiation, protein turnover, and exercise performance. Moreover, CC enriched gut microbial diversity, and the abundance of Clostridium sensu stricto 1 positively correlated with muscle mass. These findings suggest a multifaceted mode of action for CC: (1) direct modulation of the muscle cannabinoid receptor system favoring anabolic processes and (2) indirect modulation of muscle health through the gut microbiome. Overall, CC presents a promising therapeutic strategy for preventing and treating muscle atrophy.

Protective role of pretreatment with Anisodamine against sepsis-induced diaphragm atrophy via inhibiting JAK2/STAT3 pathway.

There is an increasing tendency for sepsis patients to suffer from diaphragm atrophy as well as mortality. Therefore, reducing diaphragm atrophy could benefit sepsis patients' prognoses. Studies have shown that Anisodamine (Anis) can exert antioxidant effects when blows occur. However, the role of Anisodamine in diaphragm atrophy in sepsis patients has not been reported. Therefore, this study investigated the antioxidant effect of Anisodamine in sepsis-induced diaphragm atrophy and its mechanism. We used cecal ligation aspiration (CLP) to establish a mouse septic mode and stimulated the C2C12 myotube model with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). After treatment with Anisodamine, we measured the mice's bodyweight, diaphragm weight, fiber cross-sectional area and the diameter of C2C12 myotubes. The malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the diaphragm were detected using the oxidative stress kit. The expression of MuRF1, Atrogin1 and JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway components in the diaphragm and C2C12 myotubes was measured by RT-qPCR and Western blot. The mean fluorescence intensity of ROS in C2C12 myotubes was measured by flow cytometry. Meanwhile, we also measured the levels of Drp1 and Cytochrome C (Cyt-C) in vivo and in vitro by Western blot. Our study revealed that Anisodamine alleviated the reduction in diaphragmatic mass and the loss of diaphragmatic fiber cross-sectional area and attenuated the atrophy of the C2C12 myotubes by inhibiting the expression of E3 ubiquitin ligases. In addition, we observed that Anisodamine inhibited the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway and protects mitochondrial function. In conclusion, Anisodamine alleviates sepsis-induced diaphragm atrophy, and the mechanism may be related to inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Derivation and long-term maintenance of porcine skeletal muscle progenitor cells.

Culture of muscle cells from livestock species has typically involved laborious enzyme-based approaches that yield heterogeneous populations with limited proliferative and myogenic differentiation capacity, thus limiting their use in physiologically-meaningful studies. This study reports the use of a simple explant culture technique to derive progenitor cell populations from porcine muscle that could be maintained and differentiated long-term in culture. Fragments of semitendinosus muscle from 4 to 8 week-old piglets (n = 4) were seeded on matrigel coated culture dishes to stimulate migration of muscle-derived progenitor cells (MDPCs). Cell outgrowths appeared within a few days and were serially passaged and characterised using RT-qPCR, immunostaining and flow cytometry. MDPCs had an initial mean doubling time of 1.4 days which increased to 2.5 days by passage 14. MDPC populations displayed steady levels of the lineage-specific markers, PAX7 and MYOD, up until at least passage 2 (positive immunostaining in about 40% cells for each gene), after which the expression of myogenic markers decreased gradually. Remarkably, MDPCs were able to readily generate myotubes in culture up until passage 8. Moreover, a decrease in myogenic capacity during serial passaging was concomitant with a gradual increase in the expression of the pre-adipocyte markers, CD105 and PDGFRA, and an increase in the ability of MDPCs to differentiate into adipocytes. In conclusion, explant culture provided a simple and efficient method to harvest enriched myogenic progenitors from pig skeletal muscle which could be maintained long-term and differentiated in vitro, thus providing a suitable system for studies on porcine muscle biology and applications in the expanding field of cultured meat.

circUSP13 facilitates the fast-to-slow myofiber shift via the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway in goat skeletal muscles.

Understanding how skeletal muscle fiber proportions are regulated is essential for understanding muscle function and improving the quality of mutton. While circular RNA (circRNA) has a critical function in myofiber type transformation, the specific mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Prior evidence indicates that circular ubiquitin-specific peptidase 13 (circUSP13) can promote myoblast differentiation by acting as a ceRNA, but its potential role in myofiber switching is still unknown. Herein, we found that circUSP13 enhanced slow myosin heavy chain (MyHC-slow) and suppressed MyHC-fast expression in goat primary myoblasts (GPMs). Meanwhile, circUSP13 evidently enhanced the remodeling of the mitochondrial network while inhibiting the autophagy of GPMs. We obtained fast-dominated myofibers, via treatment with rotenone, and further demonstrated the positive role of circUSP13 in the fast-to-slow transition. Mechanistically, activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) pathway significantly impaired the slow-to-fast shift in fully differentiated myotubes, which was restored by circUSP13 or IGF1 overexpression. In conclusion, circUSP13 promoted the fast-to-slow myofiber type transition through MAPK/ERK signaling in goat skeletal muscle. These findings provide novel insights into the role of circUSP13 in myofiber type transition and contribute to a better understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying meat quality.

Diverse effects of a Cyperus rotundus extract on glucose uptake in myotubes and adipocytes and its suppression on adipocyte maturation.

Cyperus rotundus rhizomes have been used in longevity remedies in Thailand for nourishing good health, which led us to investigate the effect on energy homeostasis, especially glucose utilization in myotubes and adipocytes, and on inhibition of lipogenesis in adipocytes. The results showed that an ethyl acetate extract of C. rotundus rhizomes (ECR) containing 1.61%w/w piceatannol, with a half-maximal concentration of 17.76 ± 0.03 µg/mL in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay, caused upregulation and cell-membrane translocation of glucose transporters GLUT4 and 1 in L6 myotubes but downregulation and cytoplasmic localization of GLUT4 expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and was related to the p-Akt/Akt ratio in both cells, especially at 100 µg/mL. Moreover, ECR (25-100 µg/mL) significantly inhibited lipid accumulation via Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK), Acetyl CoA Carboxylase (ACC), and Glycogen Synthase Kinase (GSK) pathways. Its immunoblot showed increased expression of p-AMPKα/AMPKα and p-ACC/ACC but decreased expression of p-Akt/Akt and p-GSK3ß/GSK3ß in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Moreover, the decreased expression of the adipogenic effectors, perilipin1 and lipoprotein lipase, in ECR-incubated adipocytes (50 and 100 µg/mL) indicated reduced de novo lipogenesis. Our study elucidated mechanisms of C. rotundus that help attenuate glucose tolerance in skeletal muscle and inhibit lipid droplet accumulation in adipose tissue.

Oncostatin M signaling drives cancer-associated skeletal muscle wasting.

Progressive weakness and muscle loss are associated with multiple chronic conditions, including muscular dystrophy and cancer. Cancer-associated cachexia, characterized by dramatic weight loss and fatigue, leads to reduced quality of life and poor survival. Inflammatory cytokines have been implicated in muscle atrophy; however, available anticytokine therapies failed to prevent muscle wasting in cancer patients. Here, we show that oncostatin M (OSM) is a potent inducer of muscle atrophy. OSM triggers cellular atrophy in primary myotubes using the JAK/STAT3 pathway. Identification of OSM targets by RNA sequencing reveals the induction of various muscle atrophy-related genes, including Atrogin1. OSM overexpression in mice causes muscle wasting, whereas muscle-specific deletion of the OSM receptor (OSMR) and the neutralization of circulating OSM preserves muscle mass and function in tumor-bearing mice. Our results indicate that activated OSM/OSMR signaling drives muscle atrophy, and the therapeutic targeting of this pathway may be useful in preventing muscle wasting.

Amorphous calcium carbonate enhances osteogenic differentiation and myotube formation of human bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells and primary skeletal muscle cells under microgravity conditions.

Astronauts are exposed to severely stressful physiological conditions due to microgravity and increased space radiation. Space environment affects every organ and cell in the body and the significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton (spaceflight osteopenia). Amorphous Calcium Carbonate (ACC) emerges as a promising candidate for prevention of these effects, owing to its unique physicochemical properties and its potential to address the intricately linked nature of bone-muscle crosstalk. Reported here are two studies carried out on the International Space Station (ISS). The first, performed in 2018 as a part of the Ramon-Spacelab project, was a preliminary experiment, in which stromal murine cells were differentiated into osteoblasts when ACC was added to the culture medium. A parallel experiment was done on Earth as a control. The second study was part of Axiom-1's Rakia project mission launched to the ISS on 2022 utilizing organ-on-a-chip methodology with a specially designed autonomous module. In this experiment, human bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBM-MSCs) and human primary muscle cells were cultured in the presence or absence of ACC, in duplicates. The results showed that ACC enhanced differentiation of human primary skeletal muscle cells into myotubes. Similarly, hBM-MSCs were differentiated significantly better into osteocytes in the presence of ACC leading to increased calcium deposits. The results, combined with previous data, support the use of ACC as an advantageous supplement for preventing muscle and bone deterioration in outer space conditions, facilitating extended extraterrestrial voyages and colonization.

Taurine Rescues Cancer-induced Atrophy in Human Skeletal Muscle Cells via Ameliorating the Inflammatory Tumor Microenvironment.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Cancer cachexia is a wasting syndrome that has a devastating impact on the prognosis of patients with cancer. It is well-documented that pro-inflammatory cytokines are involved in the progression of this disorder. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the protective effect of taurine, an essential nonprotein amino acid with great anti-inflammatory properties, in attenuating muscle atrophy induced by cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Conditioned media (CM) derived from T24 human bladder carcinoma cells with or without 5 mM taurine were incubated with human skeletal muscle cells (HSkMCs) and their differentiation was examined. The intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), morphology, and the catabolic pathway were monitored. RESULTS: T24-derived CM with high levels of TNF-α and IL-6 caused aberrant ROS accumulation and formation of atrophic myotubes by HSkMCs. In T24 cancer cells, taurine significantly inhibited the production of TNF-α and IL-6. In HSkMCs, taurine increased ROS clearance during differentiation and preserved the myotube differentiation ability impaired by the inflammatory tumor microenvironment. In addition, taurine ameliorated myotube atrophy by regulating the Akt/FoxO1/MuRF1 and MAFbx signaling pathways. CONCLUSION: Taurine rescues cancer-induced atrophy in human skeletal muscle cells by ameliorating the inflammatory tumor microenvironment. Taurine supplementation may be a promising approach for intervening with the progression of cancer cachexia.

Stretch-shortening cycles protect against the age-related loss of power generation in rat single muscle fibres.

Aging is associated with impaired strength and power during isometric and shortening contractions, however, during lengthening (i.e., eccentric) contractions, strength is maintained. During daily movements, muscles undergo stretch-shortening cycles (SSCs). It is unclear whether the age-related maintenance of eccentric strength offsets age-related impairments in power generation during SSCs owing to the utilization of elastic energy or other cross-bridge based mechanisms. Here we investigated how aging influences SSC performance at the single muscle fibre level and whether performing active lengthening prior to shortening protects against age-related impairments in power generation. Single muscle fibres from the psoas major of young (∼8 months; n = 31 fibres) and old (∼32 months; n = 41 fibres) male F344BN rats were dissected and chemically permeabilized. Fibres were mounted between a force transducer and length controller and maximally activated (pCa 4.5). For SSCs, fibres were lengthened from average sarcomere lengths of 2.5 to 3.0 µm and immediately shortened back to 2.5 µm at both fast and slow (0.15 and 0.60 Lo/s) lengthening and shortening speeds. The magnitude of the SSC effect was calculated by comparing work and power during shortening to an active shortening contraction not preceded by active lengthening. Absolute isometric force was ∼37 % lower in old compared to young rat single muscle fibres, however, when normalized to cross-sectional area (CSA), there was no longer a significant difference in isometric force between age groups, meanwhile there was an ∼50 % reduction in absolute power in old as compared with young. We demonstrated that SSCs significantly increased power production (75-110 %) in both young and old fibres when shortening occurred at a fast speed and provided protection against power-loss with aging. Therefore, in older adults during everyday movements, power is likely 'protected' in part due to the stretch-shortening cycle as compared with isolated shortening contractions.

APOBEC2 safeguards skeletal muscle cell fate through binding chromatin and regulating transcription of non-muscle genes during myoblast differentiation.

The apolipoprotein B messenger RNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide (APOBEC) family is composed of nucleic acid editors with roles ranging from antibody diversification to RNA editing. APOBEC2, a member of this family with an evolutionarily conserved nucleic acid-binding cytidine deaminase domain, has neither an established substrate nor function. Using a cellular model of muscle differentiation where APOBEC2 is inducibly expressed, we confirmed that APOBEC2 does not have the attributed molecular functions of the APOBEC family, such as RNA editing, DNA demethylation, and DNA mutation. Instead, we found that during muscle differentiation APOBEC2 occupied a specific motif within promoter regions; its removal from those regions resulted in transcriptional changes. Mechanistically, these changes reflect the direct interaction of APOBEC2 with histone deacetylase (HDAC) transcriptional corepressor complexes. We also found that APOBEC2 could bind DNA directly, in a sequence-specific fashion, suggesting that it functions as a recruiter of HDAC to specific genes whose promoters it occupies. These genes are normally suppressed during muscle cell differentiation, and their suppression may contribute to the safeguarding of muscle cell fate. Altogether, our results reveal a unique role for APOBEC2 within the APOBEC family.

Differential effects of cholecalciferol and calcitriol on muscle proteolysis and oxidative stress in angiotensin II-induced C2C12 myotube atrophy.

Renin-angiotensin system activation contributes to skeletal muscle atrophy in aging individuals with chronic diseases. We aimed to explore the effects of cholecalciferol (VD3) and calcitriol (1,25VD3) on signaling of muscle proteolysis and oxidative stress in myotubes challenged with angiotensin II (AII). The mouse C2C12 myotubes were assigned to vehicle, AII, AII + VD3, AII + 1,25VD3, and AII + losartan groups. The expression levels of muscle-specific E3 ubiquitin ligase proteins, autophagy-related proteins, and oxidative stress markers were investigated. We demonstrated the diverse effects of VD3 and 1,25VD3 on AII-induced myotube atrophy. The myotube diameter was preserved by treatment with 100 nM VD3 and losartan, while 1 and 10 nM 1,25VD3 increased levels of FoxO3a, MuRF1, and atrogin-1 protein expression in myotubes exposed to AII. Treatment with AII + 10 nM 1,25VD3 resulted in the upregulation of LC3B-II, LC3B-II/LC3B-I, and mature cathepsin L, which are autophagic marker proteins. The p62/SQSTM1 protein was downregulated and vitamin D receptor was upregulated after treatment with AII + 10 nM 1,25VD3. A cellular redox imbalance was observed as AII + 10 nM 1,25VD3-induced reactive oxygen species and NADPH oxidase-2 overproduction, and these changes were associated with an inadequate response of antioxidant superoxide dismutase-1 and catalase proteins. Collectively, these findings provide a translational perspective on the role of vitamin D3 in alleviating muscle atrophy related to high levels of AII.

Beef peptides mitigate skeletal muscle atrophy in C2C12 myotubes through protein degradation, protein synthesis, and the oxidative stress pathway.

This study aimed to investigate the potential of beef peptides (BPs) in mitigating muscle atrophy induced by dexamethasone (DEX) with underlying three mechanisms in vitro (protein degradation, protein synthesis, and the oxidative stress pathway). Finally, the anti-atrophic effect of BPs was enhanced through purification and isolation. BPs were generated using beef loin hydrolyzed with alcalase/ProteAX/trypsin, each at a concentration of 0.67%, followed by ultrafiltration through a 3 kDa cut-off. BPs (10-100 µg mL-1) dose-dependently counteracted the DEX-induced reductions in myotube diameters, differentiation, fusion, and maturation indices (p < 0.05). Additionally, BPs significantly reduced FoxO1 protein dephosphorylation, thereby suppressing muscle-specific E3 ubiquitin ligases such as muscle RING-finger containing protein-1 and muscle atrophy F-box protein in C2C12 myotubes at concentrations exceeding 25 µg mL-1 (p < 0.05). BPs also enhanced the phosphorylation of protein synthesis markers, including mTOR, 4E-BP1, and p70S6K1, in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05) and increased the mRNA expression of antioxidant enzymes. Fractionated peptides derived from BPs, through size exclusion and polarity-based fractionation, also demonstrated enhanced anti-atrophic effects compared to BPs. These peptides downregulated the mRNA expression of primary muscle atrophy markers while upregulated that of antioxidant enzymes. Specifically, peptides GAGAAGAPAGGA (MW 924.5) and AFRSSTKK (MW 826.4) were identified from fractionated peptides of BPs. These findings suggest that BPs, specifically the peptide fractions GAGAAGAPAGGA and AFRSSTKK, could be a potential strategy to mitigate glucocorticoid-induced skeletal muscle atrophy by reducing the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity.