Factors Associated With Increased Risk of Serious Ocular Injury in the Setting of Orbital Fracture.

Importance: Orbital fractures are common in ocular trauma, and there is a need to develop predictive tools to estimate risk of concurrent ocular injury. Objective: To identify clinical and radiographic features that are associated with increased risk of substantial ocular injury in the setting of orbital fracture. Design, Setting, and Participants: Retrospective consecutive case series of patients who sustained orbital fractures between 2012 and 2018. Examinations were done at 1 of 2 level 1 trauma centers in the emergency or inpatient setting. A total of 430 consecutive patients (500 eyes) between 2012 and 2017 met inclusion criteria for the training sample. After building a predictive model, 88 additional consecutive patients (97 eyes) between 2017 and 2018 who met inclusion criteria were collected as a test sample. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome measure was substantial ocular injury distinct from orbital fracture. Results: The mean age of our patient population was 53.5 years (range, 16-100 years). The overall rate of substantial ocular injury was 20.4%, and the rate of injury requiring immediate ophthalmic attention was 14.4%. Five variables were found to be associated with increased risk of substantial ocular injury: blunt trauma with a foreign object (odds ratio [OR], 19.4; 95% CI, 6.3-64.1; P < .001), inability to count fingers (OR, 10.1; 95% CI, 2.8-41.1; P = .002), roof fracture (OR, 9.1; 95% CI, 2.8-30.0; P = .002), diplopia on primary gaze (OR, 6.7; 95% CI, 1.7-25.1; P = .003), and conjunctival hemorrhage or chemosis (OR, 4.2; 95% CI, 2.2-8.5; P < .001). The results were translated into a bedside tool that was tested in an independent group of eyes (n = 97) and found to be associated with substantial ocular injury with a 95% sensitivity (95% CI, 77.2-99.9), 40% specificity (95% CI, 28.9-52.0), 31.8% positive predictive value (95% CI, 27.5-36.5), and 96.8% negative predictive value (95% CI, 81.3-99.5). Conclusions and Relevance: A minority of patients with an orbital fracture had a substantial ocular injury. Certain radiographic and clinical findings were associated with substantial ocular injury. Testing of the algorithm in prospective longitudinal settings appears warranted.

Does endoscopic sinus surgery alter the biomechanics of the orbit?

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to determine if removal of ethmoid cell septations as commonly performed in endoscopic sinus surgery leads to a change in orbital wall fracture patterns and the force required to create them. METHODS: Six fresh-frozen cadaveric heads were acquired and underwent endoscopic uncinectomy, maxillary antrostomy, and anterior and posterior ethmoidectomy on one, randomized, side. The contralateral sinuses were used as intra-specimen control. Hyaluronic acid gel globe injections were performed to simulate normal intra-ocular pressure. Post-op CT scans confirmed no orbital fractures or violation of the lamina papyracea prior to trauma testing. Orbital trauma was induced using a guided weight-drop technique. Both orbits were tested in random order, and sequentially higher drops were performed until both the test and control side demonstrated an orbital fracture on CT scan. RESULTS: In all six heads, the post-sinus surgery side incurred a medial orbital wall fracture, and no orbital floor fractures were identified. On the other hand, on the control side, all six heads incurred orbital floor fractures at drop heights equal to, or higher than, the surgical side. Fisher's exact test demonstrated a significant difference in fracture pattern (p <  0.001). CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that the structures removed during sinus surgery may act as a buttress for the medial orbital wall. The anatomic changes of sinus surgery may alter the biomechanics of the orbit and affect the pattern of subsequent traumatic blowout fractures.

Poor prognoses of open globe injuries with concomitant orbital fractures.

PURPOSE: Orbital trauma, particularly with open globe injury, can have a wide range of visual outcomes, which can be difficult to predict at presentation. Clinical features on presentation may provide insight into visual prognosis. We hypothesized that patients with open globe injuries and concomitant orbital fractures have poorer visual outcomes than patients without orbital fractures. METHODS: We reviewed the charts of 77 patients with isolated open globe injuries (OG) and 76 patients with open globe injuries and concomitant orbital fractures (OGOF). Multivariate regression analysis was performed to assess the relative influence of individual presenting historical and clinical features on visual outcome. RESULTS: OGOF patients were more likely to have sustained blunt trauma than a sharp, penetrating injury compared to OG patients. Ocular wound locations were more posterior and likely to involve multiple zones in OGOF compared to OG patients. Among OGOF patients, orbital floor fractures were the most common and roof fractures were the least common, but the latter was associated with presenting NLP vision and multiple zone involvement. The presence of an orbital fracture independently increased the odds of subsequent evisceration/enucleation (OR: 4.6, 95% CI 1.3-20.1, p = .0246) and NLP vision (OR: 6.81, 95% CI 2.42-21.85, p = .0005) when controlling for zone, mechanism of injury, uveal prolapse and demographic variables. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of an orbital fracture independently confers a worse visual and ocular prognosis in patients with open globe injuries. Patients with open globe injuries in this category should be appropriately counseled.

Reconstruction of Medial Wall Blowout Fracture Defect with a Combination of Resorbable Meshed Plate and Cancellous Bone Allograft.

BACKGROUND: Various materials are available for the reconstruction of bone defects in cases of medial wall blowout fracture. This study was conducted to assess the efficacy of the combination of a resorbable meshed plate and cancellous bone allograft. METHODS: From March 2014 to March 2017, a total of 111 patients were evaluated. Sixty-three patients received reconstruction surgery with porous polyethylene plates (control group) and the other forty-eight patients underwent operation with a resorbable meshed plate plus allogenic cancellous bone (combined group). The results were assessed by exophthalmometric measurements, width, and volume discrepancies as compared with the unaffected orbit, and operation time. RESULTS: The difference in exophthalmometric measurements between the affected and unaffected orbits were 0.94 ± 0.70 mm in the control group and 1.05 ± 0.73 mm in the combined group without statistical significance (p = 0.425). In the analysis of computed tomography images, the width discrepancy was 1.55 ± 0.86 mm and 1.08 ± 0.69 mm, respectively (p = 0.003); however, the volume discrepancy demonstrated no statistically significant difference (2.58 ± 1.40 cm3 versus 2.20 ± 1.80 cm3; p = 0.209). Operation time was significantly shorter in the combined group as compared with the control group (43.0 ± 7.0 versus 38.3 ± 7.0 minutes; p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: The combination material composed of resorbable meshed plate and cancellous bone allograft made reconstruction surgery of medial wall blowout fracture easier and quicker to perform with long-lasting results.

Orbital Observation Chart: Significant in Orbital Fractures or Not?

PURPOSE: The study was conducted to assess the efficacy of orbital chart in detecting postoperative complications of orbital fractures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted in the Department of OMFS, SDM College of Dental Sciences, Dharwad from January 2011 to December 2016. It included all the patients with orbital fractures who underwent surgical intervention for reduction of the fracture in the study. We recorded data for the type of fracture, type of intervention, and orbital and ocular changes. Orbital changes measured and charted for 5 parameters which were: pain, proptosis, visual acuity, size of the pupil, and pupillary reaction to direct light reflex. RESULTS: Two hundred thirty-six patients with orbital fractures underwent surgical intervention during these 5 years. The prevailing type of fracture for which they required orbital intervention remains zygomatic complex fractures (69%). The treatment protocol depended on the pattern and displacement of fracture and age of the patient. Pain was the most common symptom among these parameters (15.7%). CONCLUSION: Orbital chart monitoring represents a straightforward and effective method to detect any complications after surgical management of orbital fractures.

Clinical outcome after orbital floor fracture reduction with special regard to patient's satisfaction.

PURPOSE: Primary reconstruction via transconjunctival approach is a standardized treatment option for orbital floor fractures. The aim of this study was to compare the findings of specific ophthalmologic assessment with the patient's complaints after fracture reduction. METHODS: A retrospective medical chart analysis was performed on patients who had undergone transconjunctival orbital floor fracture reduction for fracture therapy with resorbable foil (ethisorb sheet or polydioxanone foil). A follow-up assessment including ophthalmological evaluation regarding visual acuity (eye chart projector), binocular visual field screening (Bagolini striated glasses test) and diplopia (cover test, Hess screen test) was conducted. Additionally, a questionnaire was performed to assess patients' satisfaction. RESULTS: A total of 53 patients with a mean follow-up of 23 months (ranging from 11 to 72) after surgical therapy were included. Diplopia was present preoperatively in 23 (43.4%) and reduced in follow-up examination (n = 12, 22.6%). Limitations in ocular motility reduced from 37.7% to 7.5%. The questionnaire about the patient's satisfaction revealed excellent outcomes in relation to the functional and esthetical parameters. CONCLUSION: Transconjunctival approach is a safe approach for orbital fracture therapy. Postoperative diplopia is nearly never perceptible for the individual and differs to pathologic findings in the ophthalmic assessment.

Ocular motility alterations in orbital fractures: pre-post evaluation in maxillofacial surgical treatment.

PURPOSE: The study aims to investigate the ability of maxillofacial surgery to reduce strabismus and improve ocular clinical symptomatology in patients with fracture of the medial or lateral floor of the orbit, or both, and to evaluate such abilities relative to the temporal distance between trauma and surgery. PATIENTS AND METHODS: 25 patients with traumatic diplopia were evaluated by CT, Goldman manual field of view, Hess-Lancaster test, eye examination and orthoptic examination, before and after surgery. RESULTS: We observed: a statistically significant reduction of the deviation angle, both from close and long distance (P = 0.0054 and P = 0.0051 respectively) with a 38% reduction of the deviation from short distance and 54% from afar; a regression of diplopia in 20% of the surgically treated cases (CL from 0 to 39%), significant at the Mc Nemar test; a negative correlation with the time elapsed between the onset of the fracture and maxillofacial surgery (R = -0.26), even if the analysis did not show a statistical significance of the data (P = 0.2). However, it is evident that the maximum improvement is observed only in cases operated within 5 months of the trauma, while the failures (worsening or persistence of diplopia) were observed only in the cases operated later. CONCLUSION: We can state that the intervention reduces strabismus and improves ocular symptomatology, as it statistically significantly reduces cases of diplopia; furthermore, it would seem preferable to intervene early, especially when damage to a muscular structure is suspected, even if the data do not allow definitive conclusions in this regard.

Oculocardiac Reflex as a Late Presentation of Orbital Floor Fracture.

Delayed repair of orbital trapdoor fractures can jeopardize the viability of entrapped contents and prolong recovery. Variation in presentations, both clinically and radiographically, complicate prompt diagnosis. The oculocardiac reflex may be the only indication of fracture with entrapped orbital contents, but, unfortunately, the reflex has variable onset patterns and can mimic common diagnoses. Therefore, the authors present the case of a 14-year-old male with a right orbital floor fracture, who presented with delayed symptoms secondary to an oculocardiac reflex. The vagal sequelae of the reflex, including gastric hyperactivity and headache, were experienced approximately 1 week after the injury and caused the patient to be misdiagnosed with gastroenteritis and status migrainosus, on 2 separate hospital visits. After admission to the hospital due to progressive symptoms, a CT scan showed concerns for a subacute orbital blowout fracture. The patient underwent orbital floor exploration with findings of scarred orbital fat herniating into a healing fracture site. Repositioning of the fat into the orbit resulted in immediate resolution of the patient's symptoms. Awareness of the presenting characteristics of the oculocardiac reflex can lead to prompt diagnosis and maximize clinical outcomes.

Blowout fractures - clinic, imaging and applied anatomy of the orbit.

Isolated fractures of the orbital floor or medial wall are often referred to as blowout fractures (BOFs). Debilitating double vision and aesthetic deformity may affect the patients' quality of life and daily living skills, for instance, working or driving a car. The management of blowout fractures is, however, challenging, since not all fractures demand surgery. Some patients may have symptoms which subside, or may never develop symptoms. Due to a lack of evidence, there are still considerable differences in opinion on the criteria for surgery. The selection of patients for surgery is therefore crucial for optimal patient outcomes. 
The aims of this PhD project were to elucidate and investigate various clinical aspects of blowout fractures and to examine the anatomy of the orbital cavity, which included studying the symmetry of the two orbits, the location of orbital arteries, and the pathophysiology of blowout fractures. Several clinical specialties and basic research fields study the orbital cavity. The studies in this PhD project are based on collaboration between the Departments of Otorhinolaryngology, Ophthalmology and Radiology at the Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet and the Departments of Odontology and Anatomy (Cellular and Molecular Medicine) at the University of Copenhagen. 
We assessed the current treatment of blowout fractures at the Ear Nose and Throat (ENT) Department at our tertiary hospital in a retrospective study, and found that a third of the patients had persistent double vision 3 months post-trauma, irrespective of whether they had been managed surgically or conservatively (Paper I). We found that the left and right orbit are symmetrical with regards to various morphometrics of both the bony orbit and the intraorbital contents, e.g. volume, surface area and volume of fat and extraocular muscles, and distance to the ethmoidal arteries (Papers II, III and IV). This knowledge may be used in blowout fracture studies on surgical decision-making and orbital reconstruction and also in presurgical planning to avoid iatrogenic damage to the ethmoidal arteries in orbital surgery. In the first longitudinal MRI study of blowout fractures, dynamic post-traumatic changes in the intraorbital soft tissue were detected, i.e. to the best of our knowledge, for the first time indicative of an edema. We conclude that an edema subsides in the days following a blowout fracture and recommend a watchful waiting period before deciding on whether or not to operate (Paper III).
 The 24-12-6 mm rule of thumb determines orbital distances from the anterior lacrimal crest to the ethmoidal arteries and the optic canal. We questioned the applicability of this rule to all patients and investigated whether or not it is feasible to measure the distances on CT images. We found large inter-individual differences in the distances to the ethmoidal arteries and found that preoperative measurements on CT images are feasible and produce results with a low intra- and inter-observer variability.

Conservatively Treated Orbital Blowout Fractures: Spontaneous Radiologic Improvement.

PURPOSE: To determine if conservatively treated blowout fractures of the orbit undergo spontaneous improvement based on radiologic findings. DESIGN: Prospective, noncomparative series. PARTICIPANTS: Patients with conservatively treated orbital blowout fractures in a single tertiary institution from 2012 through 2016 with initial and follow-up computed tomography (CT) scans. METHODS: Comparison of initial and follow-up CT to assess for smoothening of bony contour, joining of bony edges, reduction in herniation of orbital contents, and new bone formation. Orbital and fracture volumes were calculated using a 3-dimensional reconstruction software program (3D Workstation; TeraRecon, Foster City, CA). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Change in bony contour, new bone formation, and decrease in orbital and fracture volumes. RESULTS: Our study comprised 41 patients and 44 orbits, with 38 unilateral and 3 bilateral cases. Most were men (65.9%; n = 27), and the mean age was 34.3±13.5 years. The mean time from injury to follow-up scan was 4.6 months (range, 1-15 months). All orbits showed changes in bony contour from initial to follow up CT, including smoothening of the orbital contour (88.6%), joining of bony edges (90.9%), and reduction in herniation of orbital contents (65.9%). Most of the orbits (n = 41; 93.2%) showed features of neobone formation. Of the 44 orbits, 91.4% showed a decrease in orbital volume, whereas 94.3% showed a decrease in fracture volume. The reduction in volume was statistically significant for both orbital (from 23.7±4.0 to 21.8±3.9 ml) as well as fracture (from 1.2±0.8 to 0.7±0.6 ml) volumes from initial to follow-up scans, respectively (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: A large proportion of patients showed improvement in radiologic findings despite being treated conservatively. This highlights the spontaneous improvement that can occur in untreated blowout fractures not just clinically, but radiologically, in terms of soft tissue and bony findings.

Medial Buttressing in Orbital Blowout Fractures.

PURPOSE: To study whether ethmoidectomy predisposes the orbit to medial wall fracture with lesser trauma. METHODS: An interventional cadaver study of 5 heads (10 orbits); the left or right orbit was randomized to undergo endoscopic complete ethmoidectomy with the fellow orbit as control. Fractures were induced with direct globe trauma, and heads underwent CT scanning. Energy to induce fracture, peak orbital pressure at time of fracture, fracture pattern, and volume of herniated tissue were measured and analyzed. RESULTS: Fractures were induced in both orbits of all cadavers. Experimental orbits after ethmoidectomy sustained orbital fracture at less energy required (2.14 ± 0.66 vs. 3.10 ± 0.19 J, mean difference: -0.96 ± 0.33 J, p < 0.05). Similarly, peak orbital pressure was lower for ethmoidectomized orbits than for controls (11.8 ± 8.42 vs. 28.4 ± 13.2 mm Hg, mean difference: -16.5 ± 6.9 mm Hg, p < 0.05). Orbits after ethmoidectomy were more likely to sustain medial wall involvement in fracture (100%) compared with controls (20%, p < 0.05) and pure medial wall fracture (80%) compared with controls (0%, p < 0.05). Overall volume of herniated orbital contents was not significantly different between groups (p = 0.25); volume of herniated tissue from the medial wall only was significantly greater in orbits after ethmoidectomy (mean difference: 1.01 ± -0.39 cm, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Endoscopic ethmoidectomy in fresh cadavers reduces impact energy necessary to induce orbital fracture and increases the prevalence of medial wall involvement. Clinicians may wish to counsel patients undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery about these relative risks.

The application of volumometry as an indication criterion in blow-out fractures.

Backgroung and Aim. This work builds on our publication on the subject of creating a mathematical model for calculating the volume of proplaped soft tissue of the orbit in blow-out fractures, which aids us greatly in our choice of the most effective treatment immediately post-accident. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In this prospective study (2014 - 2016) we treated 29 patients with blow-out fractures. 18 (62%) were treated conservatively and in 11 (38%) we proceeded surgically. We decided whether surgical or non-surgical therapy was appropriate on the basis of clinical ENT, eye examination and the total volume of prolapsed orbital soft tissue. All procedures were perfomed by the same operating team with a uniform subciliary approach and using PMR splints adapted to the correct size and shape. RESULTS: On the basis of the mathematical model we reassessed findings in 2 patients: in one we decided against a surgical solution and in the other a surgical approach was indicated. All 18 patients treated conservatively, fully recovered and are free of diplopia. The 11 operated patients are also free of diplopia, only 1 patient (3%) displays clinically insignificant postoperative diplopia in extreme posisitons when looking upwards. CONCLUSION: With proper selection of the optimal treatment, the rate of complete disappearance of diplopia and fully preserved motility of the eyeball ranges from 91 to 97%. Surgical treatment of orbital floor fractures is important, mainly to minimise persistent post-traumatic diplopia which significantly reduces a patient's quality of life.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Visual Function in Patients With Orbital Fracture by Visual Electrophysiology and Visual Field Examination.

OBJECTIVE: At present, the effect of the visual electrophysiology and vision field examination in patients with orbital blowout fracture is rarely studied. So, the authors investigate the value of visual electrophysiology and vision field examination in the diagnosis of ocular contusion. METHODS: The position and range of fracture of 81 patients were determined by computed tomography (CT) scanning. Visual evoked potential (VEP), electroretinogram (ERG), and mfERG were vision field examination detected in 81 patients and the results were compared with those of contralateral healthy eyes. In addition, visual electrophysiology and vision field examination in diagnosis of eye contusion was analyzed and the correlation of the VEP, ERG, mfERG injury duration, and visual acuity was further analyzed. RESULTS: The visual acuity of orbital fractures was significantly decreased compared with that in the uninjured eyes (t = 2.181, P = 0.032). Compared injured eyes and normal eyes in 54 patients, b wave of Max-ERG and Cone-ERG implied value extension (t = -2.426, P = 0.025; t = -2.942, P = 0.014), P-VEP P100 Peak duration and amplitude significantly extended (t = 3.162, P = 0.007; t = 9.314, P = 0.000), and F-VEP P1 amplitude decreased significantly (t = 3.362, P = 0.004). mfERG showed that the injured eye central reaction was significantly decreased (t = 8.727, P = 0.000). There was a significant correlation between P-VEP P100 amplitude and visual acuity (r = 0.067, P = 0.000). But there was no significant correlation between the P100 peak value, amplitude of P-VEP, mfERG central reaction, and injured days, respectively. There was significant difference between 2 groups with average visual acuity and mean defect value (t = 3.253, 3.461, P = 0.006, 0.003). There was statistical means the difference in P-VEP abnormal group, visual field abnormal group, and combined detection abnormal groups, the abnormal rate increased significantly (χ = 3.931, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Orbital floor fracture can lead to optic nerve damage and also may be associated with decreased macular function. The combination analysis of visual electrophysiology and vision field examination is beneficial to early diagnosis of ocular trauma and can improve the positive rate in clinic practice.

Orbital trapdoor fractures: different clinical profiles between adult and paediatric patients.

BACKGROUND: To compare clinical findings of orbital trapdoor fractures between adult and paediatric patients. METHODS: Paediatric patients were categorised into two groups by age: children (0-9 years) and adolescents (10-19 years). Adult patients were categorised into two groups by age: early (20-44 years) and middle-late adulthood (≥45 years). Demographic data, ocular and periocular complications, CT findings and binocular single vision field (BSVF) were compared among age groups. RESULTS: This study included 105 patients (105 sides, 22 children, 59 adolescents, 14 patients in early adulthood and 10 patients in middle-late adulthood). In patients with fractures of the orbital floor and medial wall, both walls presented as trapdoor fractures in paediatric patients, while one wall presented as a non-trapdoor fracture in adult patients (p=0.061). None of the adult patients showed extraocular muscle incarceration, whereas this was present in 8 of 22 children (36.4%) and 7 of 59 adolescents (11.9%) (p=0.005). Hypoesthesia of the infraorbital nerve more frequently occurred in adults (p=0.004). As the preoperative BSVF was larger in adult than in paediatric patients (p=0.007), the percentage of adult patients who underwent surgical reduction of orbital fractures tended to be lower (p=0.058). Postoperative change in BSVF was smaller in adult patients (p=0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Fracture pattern, type of incarcerated tissue and incidence of hypoesthesia of the infraorbital nerve were different between adult and paediatric patients. Adult patients had a larger preoperative BSVF and less need for surgical reduction; however, there was less improvement in postoperative BSVF.

Impact of surgical timing of postoperative ocular motility in orbital blowout fractures.

PURPOSE: To investigate the surgical timing postinjury in regard to ocular motility in patients with orbital-floor blowout fractures. METHODS: This study involved 197 eyes (92 right eyes and 105 left eyes) of 197 patients (154 males and 43 females, mean age: 29.0 years, range: 7-85 years) with pure orbital blowout fractures. All patients underwent surgical repair within 30 days postinjury and were followed up for 3 months or more postoperative (mean follow-up period: 8.4 months, range: 3-59 months). Orbital blowout fractures were classified into one of three shapes: (1) trap-door fracture with muscle entrapment, (2) trap-door fracture with incarcerated tissue and (3) depressed fragment fracture. Ocular motility was estimated by percentage of Hess area ratio (HAR%) on the Hess chart at the final follow-up examination. In addition, correlations between postinjury surgical timing and HAR% were analysed. RESULTS: The mean postinjury surgical timing was 10.7±7.8 days (range: 0-30 days). The mean postoperative HAR% (92.9%±10.5%) was significantly improved compared with preoperative HAR% (73.5%±21.7%) (p<0.01). The mean postoperative HAR% (98.3%±4.4%) of the orbital-floor trap-door fracture patients with incarcerated tissue who underwent surgical repair within 8 days postinjury was significantly better than that of the patients who underwent surgical repair after 8 days (94.2%±5.8%) (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with orbital-floor trap-door blowout fractures with incarcerated tissue that were repaired within 8 days postinjury had better outcomes than those repaired after 8 days, and HAR% is a useful method to record orbital fracture surgical outcomes.

Effect of Time to Operative Intervention on Motility Outcomes Following Orbital Floor Fracture Repair in Children.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the relationship between time to surgical intervention and extraocular motility outcomes in children following repair of an orbital floor fracture with inferior rectus entrapment. METHODS: After institution review board's approval, a retrospective, consecutive case series of 28 children with unilateral orbital floor fractures entrapping the inferior rectus muscle was conducted. Clinical examinations and CT images were performed on all children. The main outcomes measures were postoperative motility measurements. RESULTS: Eleven patients underwent surgery within 24 hours of reported injury, while 17 patients underwent surgery after 24 hours. There was no statistically significant difference in average age at the time of surgery (p = 0.47) or average preoperative motility scores (p = 1.0) between the 2 groups. Patients who underwent surgery within 24 hours of reported injury had an improved likelihood of recovery (log hazard ratio = 0.469; 95% confidence interval, -0.42 to 1.36). CONCLUSIONS: Our exploratory study suggests that surgical reduction of inferior rectus entrapment in pediatric orbital floor fractures within 24 hours from the time of injury shows an improved, but nonstatistically significant, likelihood of recovery in motility deficits with earlier surgical intervention.

Fracturas orbitarias / Orbital fractures

Introducción: las fracturas de la órbita son comunes y difíciles de manejar. Objetivo: realizar una revisión bibliográfica sobre las consideraciones anatómicas, fisiopatología, diagnóstico, tratamiento y complicaciones de las fracturas orbitarias. Métodos: se realizó una revisión bibliográfica en septiembre de 2016. Se evaluaron revistas de impacto de Web of Sciencies (35 revistas). Se consultaron las bases de datos MEDLINE, PubMed y SciELO con los descriptores: orbital fracture, treatment, epidemiology. Se incluyeron artículos en idioma inglés y español de los últimos 5 años. Se obtuvieron 127 artículos. El estudio se circunscribió a 47. Análisis e integración de la información: la órbita presenta debilidad anatómica en el piso y la pared medial que provoca una mayor afectación por fracturas. Existen varias teorías que justifican su aparición. El diagnóstico se basa en los hallazgos clínicos, incluidos los oftalmológicos, y medios auxiliares de diagnóstico; lo cual permite escoger la modalidad terapéutica y evitar complicaciones. Conclusiones: basados en el dominio de la anatomía y los métodos diagnósticos, la gestión de estas lesiones ha cambiado poco en los últimos años. Sin embargo, los avances en las imágenes orbitales, la introducción de sistemas de navegación intraoperatoria, mejores indicaciones quirúrgicas y diseños de implantes han llevado a una reevaluación del enfoque terapéutico de las fracturas orbitarias(AU)

Introduction: fractures of the orbit are common and difficult to manage. Objective: to carry out a bibliographic review on anatomical considerations, physiopathology, diagnosis, treatment and complications of orbital fractures. Methods: abibliographic review was carried out in September 2016. Journals of impact in the Web of Sciences (35 journals) were evaluated. The databases MedLine, PubMed and ScieELO were consulted with the descriptors: orbital fracture, treatment, and epidemiology. Articles in English and Spanish language of the last 5 years were included. 127 articles were obtained. The study was circumscribed to 47. Analysis and integration of information: the orbit presents anatomical weakness in the floor and the medial wall, which causes greater affectation due to fractures. There are several theories that justify its onset. The diagnosis is based on clinical findings, including ophthalmological findings, and diagnostic aids, which allows choosing the therapeutic modality and avoiding complications. Conclusions: based on the mastery of anatomic and diagnostic methods, the management of these lesions has changed little in recent years. However, advances in orbital imaging, the introduction of intraoperative navigation systems, better surgical indications and implant designs have led to a reassessment of the therapeutic approach to orbital fractures(AU)

Pediatric orbital wall fractures: Prognostic factors of diplopia and ocular motility limitation.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the factors affecting recovery of diplopia and limited ocular motility in pediatric patients who underwent surgery for orbital wall fracture. DESIGN: Retrospective observational case series. METHODS: In this retrospective observational case series, 150 pediatric patients (1-18 years old) who were diagnosed with orbital medial wall or floor fracture and underwent corrective surgery between 2004 and 2016 at Seoul National University Bundang Hospital were included. The medical records of patients with orbital medial wall or floor fracture were reviewed, including sex, age, diplopia, ocular motility, preoperative computed tomographic finding, and surgical outcomes. Factors affecting recovery of diplopia and ocular motility limitation were analyzed. RESULTS: Of the 150 patients (134 boys; mean age, 14.4 years) who underwent corrective surgery for orbital wall fracture, preoperative binocular diplopia was found in 76 (50.7%) patients and limited ocular motility in 81 (54.0%). Presence of muscle incarceration or severe supraduction limitation delayed the recovery of diplopia. In case of ocular motility limitation, presence of muscle incarceration and retrobulbar hemorrhage were related with the delayed resolution. Multivariate analysis revealed supraduction limitation (Hazard ratio [HR] = 1.74, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.19-2.55), larger horizontal orbital floor defects (HR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.07-1.38), and shorter time interval to first visit (HR = 0.73) as negative prognostic factors for the recovery of diplopia. In addition, muscle incarceration (HR = 3.53, 95% CI = 1.54-8.07) and retrobulbar hemorrhage (HR = 3.77, 95% CI = 1.45-9.82) were found as negative prognostic factors for the recovery of motility limitation. CONCLUSIONS: Presence of muscle incarceration and retrobulbar hemorrhage, horizontal length of floor fracture, supraduction limitation, and time interval from trauma to first visit were correlated with the surgical outcomes in pediatric orbital wall fracture patients. These results strengthen that the soft tissue damage associated with bony fracture affects the orbital functional unit. When managing children with orbital wall fracture, meticulous physical examination and thorough preoperative computed tomography based evaluation will help physicians to identify damage of orbital functional unit.

Prospective study on ocular motility limitation due to orbital muscle entrapment or impingement associated with orbital wall fracture.

INTRODUCTION: The recommended urgent surgical management of ocular motility restriction due to orbital muscle entrapment or impingement associated with orbital wall fracture needs to be elucidated. AIM: To evaluate the importance of the time from injury to surgery for the outcome in ocular motility and diplopia, the time lapse of ocular motility, diplopia and hypesthesia recovery. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Patients with entrapment or impingement of orbital contents due to orbital wall fracture were followed up prospectively over 1year regarding ocular motility, diplopia, hypesthesia and cosmetic deformity. RESULTS: 21 patients (10 entrapments and 11 impingements) were included and treated surgically. The median time from injury to surgery was 36 (8-413)h for the entrapment group and 168 (48-326)h for the impingement group. The median time from study inclusion to surgery was 0 (0-1) days for the entrapment group and 1.0 (0.2-4.8) days for the impingement group. All the patients had ocular motility limitation and diplopia at the inclusion. Ocular motility improved gradually and was normal at final visit. Diplopia resolved gradually in all patients except in two with non-disturbing diplopia, at the final visit. Forced duction test was positive in 90% of the patients in the entrapment group and 70% in impingement group. At final visit, hypesthesia was found in none of the patients in the entrapment group but in 4 patients in the impingement group. CONCLUSIONS: In this, the first prospective long term follow up of orbital wall fractures with ocular motility restriction, we did not find any significant correlation between the time from injury to surgery and the outcomes in ocular motility and diplopia. An entrapment requires surgery as soon as possible; however, the surgical reduction is at least as important as surgical timing. Surgery should be delayed until it can be performed by an experienced surgeon. Ocular motility restriction causing diplopia due to impingement is not an ophthalmologic emergency and surgery is recommended if the diplopia and ocular motility has not improved over time. Clinical examination of ocular motility and not CT scan findings is crucial to determine whether a limitation of ocular motility exists or not.