FgPfn participates in vegetative growth, sexual reproduction, pathogenicity, and fungicides sensitivity via affecting both microtubules and actin in the filamentous fungus Fusarium graminearum.

Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by Fusarium graminearum species complexes (FGSG), is an epidemic disease in wheat and poses a serious threat to wheat production and security worldwide. Profilins are a class of actin-binding proteins that participate in actin depolymerization. However, the roles of profilins in plant fungal pathogens remain largely unexplored. Here, we identified FgPfn, a homolog to profilins in F. graminearum, and the deletion of FgPfn resulted in severe defects in mycelial growth, conidia production, and pathogenicity, accompanied by marked disruptions in toxisomes formation and deoxynivalenol (DON) transport, while sexual development was aborted. Additionally, FgPfn interacted with Fgα1 and Fgß2, the significant components of microtubules. The organization of microtubules in the ΔFgPfn was strongly inhibited under the treatment of 0.4 µg/mL carbendazim, a well-known group of tubulin interferers, resulting in increased sensitivity to carbendazim. Moreover, FgPfn interacted with both myosin-5 (FgMyo5) and actin (FgAct), the targets of the fungicide phenamacril, and these interactions were reduced after phenamacril treatment. The deletion of FgPfn disrupted the normal organization of FgMyo5 and FgAct cytoskeleton, weakened the interaction between FgMyo5 and FgAct, and resulting in increased sensitivity to phenamacril. The core region of the interaction between FgPfn and FgAct was investigated, revealing that the integrity of both proteins was necessary for their interaction. Furthermore, mutations in R72, R77, R86, G91, I101, A112, G113, and D124 caused the non-interaction between FgPfn and FgAct. The R86K, I101E, and D124E mutants in FgPfn resulted in severe defects in actin organization, development, and pathogenicity. Taken together, this study revealed the role of FgPfn-dependent cytoskeleton in development, DON production and transport, fungicides sensitivity in F. graminearum.

Exposure to a Combination of Fusarium Mycotoxins Leads to Lipid Peroxidation and Influences Antioxidant Defenses, Fatty Acid Composition of Phospholipids, and Renal Histology in Laying Hens.

The effects of combined short-term (3 days) exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins at both the EU recommended limit (T-2/HT-2 toxin: 0.25 mg/kg; DON/3-AcDON/15-AcDON: 5 mg/kg; FB1: 20 mg/kg) and twice the dose (T-2/HT-2 toxin: 0.5 mg/kg, DON/3-AcDON/15-AcDON: 10 mg/kg, and FB1: 40 mg/kg feed) on the kidneys of laying hens were examined. Our study aimed to investigate how these mycotoxins interacted with membrane lipid fatty acid (FA) composition and lipid peroxidation processes. It was observed that the levels of conjugated dienes and trienes were higher than the control in the low-mix group on day 3, and malondialdehyde concentration was higher on days 2 and 3. The proportion of phospholipid (PL) FAs showed that saturated and monounsaturated FAs increased. Still, both n3 and n6 polyunsaturated FAs decreased significantly on day 2 of exposure in the high-mix group. Among the n3 FAs, the level of docosahexaenoic (C22:6 n3) and among n6 FAs, arachidonic (C20:4 n6) acids decreased mainly on day 2 in the high-mix group. The results suggest that the combined exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins induced lipid peroxidation in the kidneys of laying hens, which resulted in marked changes in the PL FA profile. Histological examination revealed time- and dose-dependent increases as consequences of mycotoxin exposure.

Unveiling the A-to-I mRNA editing machinery and its regulation and evolution in fungi.

A-to-I mRNA editing in animals is mediated by ADARs, but the mechanism underlying sexual stage-specific A-to-I mRNA editing in fungi remains unknown. Here, we show that the eukaryotic tRNA-specific heterodimeric deaminase FgTad2-FgTad3 is responsible for A-to-I mRNA editing in Fusarium graminearum. This editing capacity relies on the interaction between FgTad3 and a sexual stage-specific protein called Ame1. Although Ame1 orthologs are widely distributed in fungi, the interaction originates in Sordariomycetes. We have identified key residues responsible for the FgTad3-Ame1 interaction. The expression and activity of FgTad2-FgTad3 are regulated through alternative promoters, alternative translation initiation, and post-translational modifications. Our study demonstrates that the FgTad2-FgTad3-Ame1 complex can efficiently edit mRNA in yeasts, bacteria, and human cells, with important implications for the development of base editors in therapy and agriculture. Overall, this study uncovers mechanisms, regulation, and evolution of RNA editing in fungi, highlighting the role of protein-protein interactions in modulating deaminase function.

Investigation of the Inhibitory Effects of Illicium verum Essential Oil Nanoemulsion on Fusarium proliferatum via Combined Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Analysis.

Fusarium proliferatum is the main pathogen that causes Panax notoginseng root rot. The shortcomings of strong volatility and poor water solubility of Illicium verum essential oil (EO) limit its utilization. In this study, we prepared traditional emulsion (BDT) and nanoemulsion (Bneo) of I. verum EO by ultrasonic method with Tween-80 and absolute ethanol as solvents. The chemical components of EO, BDT, and Bneo were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and the antifungal activity and mechanism were compared. The results show that Bneo has good stability and its particle size is 34.86 nm. The contents of (-) -anethole and estragole in Bneo were significantly higher than those in BDT. The antifungal activity against F. proliferatum was 5.8-fold higher than BDT. In the presence of I. verum EO, the occurrence of P. notoginseng root rot was significantly reduced. By combining transcriptome and metabolomics analysis, I. verum EO was found to be involved in the mutual transformation of pentose and glucuronic acid, galactose metabolism, streptomycin biosynthesis, carbon metabolism, and other metabolic pathways of F. proliferatum, and it interfered with the normal growth of F. proliferatum to exert antifungal effects. This study provide a theoretical basis for expanding the practical application of Bneo.

Functional Differentiation of the Succinate Dehydrogenase Subunit SdhC Governs the Sensitivity to SDHI Fungicides, ROS Homeostasis, and Pathogenicity in Fusarium asiaticum.

Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) is an integral component of the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) and respiratory electron transport chain (ETC), targeted by succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHIs). Fusarium asiaticum is a prominent phytopathogen causing Fusarium head blight (FHB) on wheat. Here, we characterized the functions of the FaSdhA, FaSdhB, FaSdhC1, FaSdhC2, and FaSdhD subunits. Deletion of FaSdhA, FaSdhB, or FaSdhD resulted in significant growth defects in F. asiaticum. The FaSdhC1 or FaSdhC2 deletion mutants exhibited substantial reductions in fungal growth, conidiation, virulence, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). The FaSdhC1 expression was significantly induced by pydiflumetofen (PYD). The ΔFaSdhC1 mutant displayed hypersensitivity to SDHIs, whereas the ΔFaSdhC2 mutant exhibited resistance against most SDHIs. The transmembrane domains of FaSdhC1 are essential for regulating mycelial growth, virulence, and sensitivity to SDHIs. These findings provided valuable insights into how the two SdhC paralogues regulated the functional integrity of SDH, ROS homeostasis, and the sensitivity to SDHIs in phytopathogenic fungi.

Advances in Understanding Fusarium graminearum: Genes Involved in the Regulation of Sexual Development, Pathogenesis, and Deoxynivalenol Biosynthesis.

The wheat head blight disease caused by Fusarium graminearum is a major concern for food security and the health of both humans and animals. As a pathogenic microorganism, F. graminearum produces virulence factors during infection to increase pathogenicity, including various macromolecular and small molecular compounds. Among these virulence factors, secreted proteins and deoxynivalenol (DON) are important weapons for the expansion and colonization of F. graminearum. Besides the presence of virulence factors, sexual reproduction is also crucial for the infection process of F. graminearum and is indispensable for the emergence and spread of wheat head blight. Over the last ten years, there have been notable breakthroughs in researching the virulence factors and sexual reproduction of F. graminearum. This review aims to analyze the research progress of sexual reproduction, secreted proteins, and DON of F. graminearum, emphasizing the regulation of sexual reproduction and DON synthesis. We also discuss the application of new gene engineering technologies in the prevention and control of wheat head blight.

The Combined Effects of Azoxystrobin and the Biosurfactant-Producing Bacillus sp. Kol B3 against the Phytopathogenic Fungus Fusarium sambucinum IM 6525.

This study aimed to evaluate how the combined presence of the synthetic fungicide azoxystrobin (AZ) and the biosurfactant-producing Bacillus sp. Kol B3 influences the growth of the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium sambucinum IM 6525. The results showed a noticeable increase in antifungal effectiveness when biotic and abiotic agents were combined. This effect manifested across diverse parameters, including fungal growth inhibition, changes in hyphae morphology, fungal membrane permeability and levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). In response to the presence of Fusarium and AZ in the culture, the bacteria changed the proportions of biosurfactants (surfactin and iturin) produced. The presence of both AZ and/or Fusarium resulted in an increase in iturin biosynthesis. Only in 72 h old bacterial-fungal co-culture a 20% removal of AZ was noted. In the fungal cultures (with and without the addition of the bacteria), the presence of an AZ metabolite named azoxystrobin free acid was detected in the 48th and 72nd hours of the process. The possible involvement of increased iturin and ROS content in antifungal activity of Bacillus sp. and AZ when used together are also discussed. Biosurfactants were analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Microscopy techniques and biochemical assays were also used.

A Role in 15-Deacetylcalonectrin Acetylation in the Non-Enzymatic Cyclization of an Earlier Bicyclic Intermediate in Fusarium Trichothecene Biosynthesis.

The trichothecene biosynthesis in Fusarium begins with the cyclization of farnesyl pyrophosphate to trichodiene, followed by subsequent oxygenation to isotrichotriol. This initial bicyclic intermediate is further cyclized to isotrichodermol (ITDmol), a tricyclic precursor with a toxic trichothecene skeleton. Although the first cyclization and subsequent oxygenation are catalyzed by enzymes encoded by Tri5 and Tri4, the second cyclization occurs non-enzymatically. Following ITDmol formation, the enzymes encoded by Tri101, Tri11, Tri3, and Tri1 catalyze 3-O-acetylation, 15-hydroxylation, 15-O-acetylation, and A-ring oxygenation, respectively. In this study, we extensively analyzed the metabolites of the corresponding pathway-blocked mutants of Fusarium graminearum. The disruption of these Tri genes, except Tri3, led to the accumulation of tricyclic trichothecenes as the main products: ITDmol due to Tri101 disruption; a mixture of isotrichodermin (ITD), 7-hydroxyisotrichodermin (7-HIT), and 8-hydroxyisotrichodermin (8-HIT) due to Tri11 disruption; and a mixture of calonectrin and 3-deacetylcalonectrin due to Tri1 disruption. However, the ΔFgtri3 mutant accumulated substantial amounts of bicyclic metabolites, isotrichotriol and trichotriol, in addition to tricyclic 15-deacetylcalonectrin (15-deCAL). The ΔFgtri5ΔFgtri3 double gene disruptant transformed ITD into 7-HIT, 8-HIT, and 15-deCAL. The deletion of FgTri3 and overexpression of Tri6 and Tri10 trichothecene regulatory genes did not result in the accumulation of 15-deCAL in the transgenic strain. Thus, the absence of Tri3p and/or the presence of a small amount of 15-deCAL adversely affected the non-enzymatic second cyclization and C-15 hydroxylation steps.

Impact of Environmental Conditions on the Concentrations of Trichothecenes, Their Glucosides, and Emerging Fusarium Toxins in Naturally Contaminated, Irradiated, and Fusarium langsethiae Inoculated Oats.

Trichothecenes produced by Fusarium species are commonly detected in oats. However, the ratios of the concentrations of free trichothecenes and their conjugates and how they are impacted by different interacting environmental conditions are not well documented. This study aims to examine the effect of water activity (0.95 and 0.98 aw) and temperature (20 and 25 °C) stress on the production of T-2 and HT-2 toxins, deoxynivalenol and their conjugates, as well as diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS). Multiple mycotoxins were detected using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry from 64 contaminated oat samples. The highest concentrations of HT-2-glucoside (HT-2-Glc) were observed at 0.98 aw and 20 °C, and were higher than other type A trichothecenes in the natural oats' treatments. However, no statistical differences were found between the mean concentrations of HT-2-Glc and HT-2 toxins in all storage conditions analysed. DAS concentrations were generally low and highest at 0.95 aw and 20 °C, while deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside levels were highest at 0.98 aw and 20 °C in the naturally contaminated oats. Emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin, moniliformin, and enniatins mostly increased with a rise in water activity and temperature in the naturally contaminated oats treatment. This study reinforces the importance of storage aw and temperature conditions in the high risk of free and modified toxin contamination of small cereal grains.

Evaluation of multi-heavy metal tolerance traits of soil-borne fungi for simultaneous removal of hazardous metals.

The demand for environment-friendly cleanup techniques has arisen due to an increase in environmental pollutants. Fungi is the most prevalent and effective class of heavy metal-resistant microorganisms with the ability to leach metals. The objective of the present study was to isolate the fungi from the agricultural soil of Kashmir valley, investigate their multi-metal tolerance to heavy metals and evaluate the metal uptake capacities of the resistant fungi. The fungi were isolated and identified on the basis of morphological and molecular approach (ITS1 and ITS4). The tolerance limits of the isolated fungal strains to various doses of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co) was evaluated. Five fungal strains, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium verticillioides, Aspergillus fischeri, Epicoccum mackenziei were isolated from the soil samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the study of metal resistance of Aspergillus fischeri and Epicoccum mackenziei. Among the identified fungal species, Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum were found to be most tolerant with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 600 ppm against Cu and Cr respectively. Results indicated removal of considerable amount of heavy metals by some of the fungi. The highest metal uptake of 8.31 mg/g was found in Fusarium verticillioides for Zn. Surprisingly, these fungal strains demonstrated resistance to metal concentrations above the levels that are universally acceptable for polluted soils, and hence prove to be appealing contenders for use as bioremediation agents for cleaning up heavy metal-polluted environments.

Nucleoside Diphosphate Kinase FgNdpk Is Required for DON Production and Pathogenicity by Regulating the Growth and Toxisome Formation of Fusarium graminearum.

Nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDPKs) are nucleotide metabolism enzymes that play different physiological functions in different species. However, the roles of NDPK in phytopathogen and mycotoxin production are not well understood. In this study, we showed that Fusarium graminearum FgNdpk is important for vegetative growth, conidiation, sexual development, and pathogenicity. Furthermore, FgNdpk is required for deoxynivalenol (DON) production; deletion of FgNDPK downregulates the expression of DON biosynthesis genes and disrupts the formation of FgTri4-GFP-labeled toxisomes, while overexpression of FgNDPK significantly increases DON production. Interestingly, FgNdpk colocalizes with the DON biosynthesis proteins FgTri1 and FgTri4 in the toxisome, and coimmunoprecipitation (Co-IP) assays show that FgNdpk associates with FgTri1 and FgTri4 in vivo and regulates their localizations and expressions, respectively. Taken together, these data demonstrate that FgNdpk is important for vegetative growth, conidiation, and pathogenicity and acts as a key protein that regulates toxisome formation and DON biosynthesis in F. graminearum.

Non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS)-encoding products and their biosynthetic logics in Fusarium.

Fungal non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS)-encoding products play a paramount role in new drug discovery. Fusarium, one of the most common filamentous fungi, is well-known for its biosynthetic potential of NRPS-type compounds with diverse structural motifs and various biological properties. With the continuous improvement and extensive application of bioinformatic tools (e.g., anti-SMASH, NCBI, UniProt), more and more biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) of secondary metabolites (SMs) have been identified in Fusarium strains. However, the biosynthetic logics of these SMs have not yet been well investigated till now. With the aim to increase our knowledge of the biosynthetic logics of NPRS-encoding products in Fusarium, this review firstly provides an overview of research advances in elucidating their biosynthetic pathways.

Antagonistic properties against Fusarium sporotrichioides and glycosylation of HT-2 and T-2 toxins by selected Trichoderma strains.

The present study assessed the ability of Trichoderma to combat F. sporotrichioides, focusing on their antagonistic properties. Tests showed that Trichoderma effectively inhibited F. sporotrichioides mycelial growth, particularly with T. atroviride strains. In co-cultures on rice grains, Trichoderma almost completely reduced the biosynthesis of T-2 and HT-2 toxins by Fusarium. T-2 toxin-α-glucoside (T-2-3α-G), HT-2 toxin-α-glucoside (HT-2-3α-G), and HT-2 toxin-ß-glucoside (HT-2-3ß-G) were observed in the common culture medium, while these substances were not present in the control medium. The study also revealed unique metabolites and varying metabolomic profiles in joint cultures of Trichoderma and Fusarium, suggesting complex interactions. This research offers insights into the processes of biocontrol by Trichoderma, highlighting its potential as a sustainable solution for managing cereal plant pathogens and ensuring food safety.

Proteomic Analysis of Cell Wall Proteins with Various Linkages in Fusarium graminearum.

The fungal cell wall, primarily comprising a glucan-chitin matrix and cell wall proteins (CWPs), serves as a key mediator for fungal interactions with the environment and plays a pivotal role in virulence. In this study, we employed a comprehensive proteomics approach to analyze the CWPs in the plant pathogenic fungus Fusarium graminearum. Our methodology successfully extracted and identified 1373 CWPs, highlighting their complex linkages, including noncovalent bonds, disulfide bridges, alkali-sensitive linkages, and glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors. A significant subset of these proteins, enriched in Gene Ontology terms, suggest multifunctional roles of CWPs. Through the integration of transcriptomic and proteomic data, we observed differential expression patterns of CWPs across developmental stages. Specifically, we focused on two genes, Fca7 and Cpd1, which were upregulated in planta, and confirmed their localization predominantly outside the plasma membrane, primarily in the cell wall and periplasmic space. The disruption of FCA7 reduced virulence on wheat, aligning with previous findings and underscoring its significance. Overall, our findings offer a comprehensive proteomic profile of CWPs in F. graminearum, laying the groundwork for a deeper understanding of their roles in the development and interactions with host plants.

The potential of soil microbial communities to transform deoxynivalenol in agricultural soils-a soil microcosm study.

Infestation of cereal fields with toxigenic Fusarium species is identified as an environmental source for the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). During rain events, DON may be washed off from infested plants and enter the soil, where microbial transformation may occur. Although some studies showed DON transformation potential of soil microbial communities in liquid soil extracts, these findings can not be transferred to environmental conditions. Accordingly, microbial transformation of DON in soil has to be investigated under realistic conditions, e.g., microcosms mimicking field situations. In this study, we investigated the potential of soil microbial communities to transform DON in six different agricultural soils at two levels (0.5 and 5 µg g-1). The dissipation and the formation of transformation products were investigated in a period of 35 days and compared to a sterilized control. In addition, we measured soil respiration and applied the phospholipid-derived fatty acid (PLFA) analysis to assess whether soil microbial community characteristics are related to the microbial transformation potential. Dissipation of DON in non-sterilized soils was fast (50% dissipation within 0.6-3.7 days) compared to the sterile control where almost no dissipation was observed. Thus, dissipation was mainly attributed to microbial transformation. We verified that small amounts of DON are transformed to 3-keto-deoxynivalenol (3-keto-DON) and 3-epi-deoxynivalenol (3-epi-DON), which were not detectable after 16-day incubation, indicating further transformation processes. There was a trend towards faster transformation in soils with active and large microbial communities and low fungi-to-bacteria ratio.

Mechanistic insight into human androgen receptor-mediated endocrine disrupting potential of cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxin, beauvericin, and influencing environmental factors for its biosynthesis in Fusarium oxysporum KFCC 11363P on rice cereal.

In current study, Fusarium mycotoxin, beauvericin (BEA), has endocrine disrupting potential through suppressing the exogenous androgen receptor (AR)-mediated transcriptional activation. BEA was classified as an AR antagonist, with IC30 and IC50 values indicating that it suppressed AR dimerization in the cytosol. BEA suppress the translocation of cytosolic activated ARs to the nucleus via exogenous androgens. Furthermore, we investigated the impact of environmental conditions for BEA production on rice cereal using response surface methodology. The environmental factors affecting the production of BEA, namely temperature, initial moisture content, and growth time were optimized at 20.28 °C, 42.79 % (w/w), and 17.31 days, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report showing that BEA has endocrine disrupting potential through suppressing translocation of cytosolic ARs to nucleus, and temperature, initial moisture content, and growth time are important influencing environmental factors for its biosynthesis in Fusarium strains on cereal.

A fungal P450 enzyme from Fusarium equiseti HG18 with 7ß-hydroxylase activity in biosynthesis of ursodeoxycholic acid.

Cytochrome P450 enzyme with 7ß-hydroxylation capacity has attracted widespread attentions due to the vital roles in the biosynthesis of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), a naturally active molecule for the treatment of liver and gallbladder diseases. In this study, a novel P450 hydroxylase (P450FE) was screen out from Fusarium equiseti HG18 and identified by a combination of genome and transcriptome sequencing, as well as heterologous expression in Pichia pastoris. The biotransformation of lithocholic acid (LCA) by whole cells of recombinant Pichia pastoris further confirmed the C7ß-hydroxylation with 5.2% UDCA yield. It was firstly identified a fungal P450 enzyme from Fusarium equiseti HG18 with the capacity to catalyze the LCA oxidation producing UDCA. The integration of homology modeling and molecular docking discovered the substrate binding to active pockets, and the key amino acids in active center were validated by site-directed mutagenesis, and revealed that Q112, V362 and L363 were the pivotal residues of P450FE in regulating the activity and selectivity of 7ß-hydroxylation. Specifically, V362I mutation exhibited 2.6-fold higher levels of UDCA and higher stereospecificity than wild-type P450FE. This advance provided guidance for improving the catalytic efficiency and selectivity of P450FE in LCA hydroxylation, indicative of the great potential in green synthesis of UDCA from biologically toxic LCA.

The jet-like chromatin structure defines active secondary metabolism in fungi.

Eukaryotic genomes are spatially organized within the nucleus in a nonrandom manner. However, fungal genome arrangement and its function in development and adaptation remain largely unexplored. Here, we show that the high-order chromosome structure of Fusarium graminearum is sculpted by both H3K27me3 modification and ancient genome rearrangements. Active secondary metabolic gene clusters form a structure resembling chromatin jets. We demonstrate that these jet-like domains, which can propagate symmetrically for 54 kb, are prevalent in the genome and correlate with active gene transcription and histone acetylation. Deletion of GCN5, which encodes a core and functionally conserved histone acetyltransferase, blocks the formation of the domains. Insertion of an exogenous gene within the jet-like domain significantly augments its transcription. These findings uncover an interesting link between alterations in chromatin structure and the activation of fungal secondary metabolism, which could be a general mechanism for fungi to rapidly respond to environmental cues, and highlight the utility of leveraging three-dimensional genome organization in improving gene transcription in eukaryotes.

Beauvericin, produced by Fusarium oxysporum inhibits bisphenol A-induced proliferation of human breast cancer cell line by regulating ERα/p38 pathway.

Beauvericin (BEA) is a cyclic depsipeptide secondary metabolite of Fusarium species. It causes chemical hazards in food products and exists in an environment containing soil and various food types. On the other hand, the purified BEA has various biological activities and is regarded as a potential candidate for pharmaceutical research. This study was performed to assess the anti-proliferation activity of BEA against human breast cancer cells by regulating the estrogen receptor-alpha (ERα)/p38 pathway. TA and BA assays verified that BEA is a completed ER antagonist. Additionally, BEA suppressed cell proliferation in the anti-proliferation assay involving ER-positive human breast cancer cells co-treated with BPA and BEA. In respect to an anti-proliferation activity, the BPA-induced phosphorylation of p38 protein was inhibited in the presence of BEA. These results suggested that BEA exerts inhibitory potentials on endocrine disrupting effect and possibly acts as a natural therapeutic material for human estrogen hormonal health.

Mitochondria-Associated Protein FgNdk1 Regulates the Development, Pathogenicity, and SDHI Fungicide Sensitivity of Fusarium graminearum by Interacting with Succinate Dehydrogenase.

Nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDK) plays an important role in many cellular processes in all organisms. In this study, we functionally characterized a nucleoside diphosphate kinase (FgNdk1) in Fusarium graminearum, a causal agent of Fusarium head blight (FHB). FgNdk1 was involved in the generation of energy in the electron-transfer chain by interacting with succinate dehydrogenase (FgSdhA, FgSdhC1, and FgSdhC2). Deletion of FgNdk1 not only resulted in abnormal mitochondrial morphology, decreased ATP content, defective fungal development, and impairment in the formation of the toxisome but also led to the suppressed expression level of DON biosynthesis enzymes, decreased DON biosynthesis, and declined pathogenicity as well. Furthermore, deletion of FgNdk1 caused increasing transcriptional levels of FgSdhC1 and FgdhC2, in the presence of pydiflumetofen, related to the decreased sensitivity to SDHI fungicides. Overall, this study identified a new regulatory mechanism of FgNdk1 in the pathogenicity and SDHI fungicide sensitivity of Fusarium graminearum.