Phenotypic variation seems not to be associated with the genetic profile in Zygopetalum (Orchidaceae): a case study of a high-elevation rocky complex.

BACKGROUND: Hybridization associated with polyploidy studies is rare in the tropics. The genus Zygopetalum (Orchidaceae) was investigated here as a case study of Neotropical plants. In the rocky highlands of the Ibitipoca State Park (ISP), southeast Brazil, individuals with intermediate colors and forms between the species Z. maculatum and Z. triste were commonly identified. METHODS AND RESULTS: Chromosomal analysis and DNA quantity showed a uniform population. Regardless of the aspects related to the color and shape of floral structures, all individuals showed 2n = 96 chromosomes and an average of 14.05 pg of DNA. Irregularities in meiosis associated with chromosome number and C value suggest the occurrence of polyploidy. The genetic distance estimated using ISSR molecular markers revealed the existence of genetic variability not related to morphological clusters. Morphometric measurements of the flower pieces revealed that Z. maculatum shows higher variation than Z. triste although lacking a defined circumscription. CONCLUSION: The observed variation can be explained by the polyploid and phenotypic plasticity resulting from the interaction of the genotypes with the heterogeneous environments observed in this habitat.

The complex polyploid genome architecture of sugarcane.

Sugarcane, the world's most harvested crop by tonnage, has shaped global history, trade and geopolitics, and is currently responsible for 80% of sugar production worldwide1. While traditional sugarcane breeding methods have effectively generated cultivars adapted to new environments and pathogens, sugar yield improvements have recently plateaued2. The cessation of yield gains may be due to limited genetic diversity within breeding populations, long breeding cycles and the complexity of its genome, the latter preventing breeders from taking advantage of the recent explosion of whole-genome sequencing that has benefited many other crops. Thus, modern sugarcane hybrids are the last remaining major crop without a reference-quality genome. Here we take a major step towards advancing sugarcane biotechnology by generating a polyploid reference genome for R570, a typical modern cultivar derived from interspecific hybridization between the domesticated species (Saccharum officinarum) and the wild species (Saccharum spontaneum). In contrast to the existing single haplotype ('monoploid') representation of R570, our 8.7 billion base assembly contains a complete representation of unique DNA sequences across the approximately 12 chromosome copies in this polyploid genome. Using this highly contiguous genome assembly, we filled a previously unsized gap within an R570 physical genetic map to describe the likely causal genes underlying the single-copy Bru1 brown rust resistance locus. This polyploid genome assembly with fine-grain descriptions of genome architecture and molecular targets for biotechnology will help accelerate molecular and transgenic breeding and adaptation of sugarcane to future environmental conditions.

Population genomics of helminth parasites.

Next generation sequencing technologies have facilitated a shift from a few targeted loci in population genetic studies to whole genome approaches. Here, we review the types of questions and inferences regarding the population biology and evolution of parasitic helminths being addressed within the field of population genomics. Topics include parabiome, hybridization, population structure, loci under selection and linkage mapping. We highlight various advances, and note the current trends in the field, particularly a focus on human-related parasites despite the inherent biodiversity of helminth species. We conclude by advocating for a broader application of population genomics to reflect the taxonomic and life history breadth displayed by helminth parasites. As such, our basic knowledge about helminth population biology and evolution would be enhanced while the diversity of helminths in itself would facilitate population genomic comparative studies to address broader ecological and evolutionary concepts.

Modeling the influence of phenotypic plasticity on maize hybrid performance.

Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an individual to alter its phenotype in response to changes in the environment, has been proposed as a target for breeding crop varieties with high environmental fitness. Here, we used phenotypic and genotypic data from multiple maize (Zea mays L.) populations to mathematically model phenotypic plasticity in response to the environment (PPRE) in inbred and hybrid lines. PPRE can be simply described by a linear model in which the two main parameters, intercept a and slope b, reflect two classes of genes responsive to endogenous (class A) and exogenous (class B) signals that coordinate plant development. Together, class A and class B genes contribute to the phenotypic plasticity of an individual in response to the environment. We also made connections between phenotypic plasticity and hybrid performance or general combining ability (GCA) of yield using 30 F1 hybrid populations generated by crossing the same maternal line with 30 paternal lines from different maize heterotic groups. We show that the parameters a and b from two given parental lines must be concordant to reach an ideal GCA of F1 yield. We hypothesize that coordinated regulation of the two classes of genes in the F1 hybrid genome is the basis for high GCA. Based on this theory, we built a series of predictive models to evaluate GCA in silico between parental lines of different heterotic groups.

Comparative Cytological and Transcriptome Analyses of Anther Development in Nsa Cytoplasmic Male Sterile (1258A) and Maintainer Lines in Brassica napus Produced by Distant Hybridization.

1258A is a new line of B.napus with Nsa cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) with potential applications in hybrid rapeseed breeding. Sterile cytoplasm was obtained from XinJiang Sinapis arvensis through distant hybridization and then backcrossed with 1258B for many generations. However, the characteristics and molecular mechanisms underlying pollen abortion in this sterile line are poorly understood. In this study, a cytological analysis revealed normal microsporogenesis and uninucleate pollen grain formation. Pollen abortion was due to non-programmed cell death in the tapetum and the inability of microspores to develop into mature pollen grains. Sucrose, soluble sugar, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) contents during microspore development were lower than those of the maintainer line, along with an insufficient energy supply, reduced antioxidant enzyme activity, and substantial malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation in the anthers. Transcriptome analysis revealed that genes involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis, glutathione metabolism, phenylpropane biosynthesis, cyanoamino acid metabolism, starch and sucrose metabolism, and glycerolipid metabolism may contribute to pollen abortion. The down regulation of nine cytochrome P450 monooxygenases genes were closely associated with pollen abortion. These results suggest that pollen abortion in 1258A CMS stems from abnormalities in the chorioallantoic membranes, energy deficiencies, and dysfunctional antioxidant systems in the anthers. Our results provide insight into the molecular mechanism underlying pollen abortion in Nsa CMS and provide a theoretical basis for better heterosis utilization in B.napus.

Signatures of hybridization in Trypanosoma brucei.

Genetic exchange among disease-causing micro-organisms can generate progeny that combine different pathogenic traits. Though sexual reproduction has been described in trypanosomes, its impact on the epidemiology of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) remains controversial. However, human infective and non-human infective strains of Trypanosoma brucei circulate in the same transmission cycles in HAT endemic areas in subsaharan Africa, providing the opportunity for mating during the developmental cycle in the tsetse fly vector. Here we investigated inheritance among progeny from a laboratory cross of T. brucei and then applied these insights to genomic analysis of field-collected isolates to identify signatures of past genetic exchange. Genomes of two parental and four hybrid progeny clones with a range of DNA contents were assembled and analysed by k-mer and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) frequencies to determine heterozygosity and chromosomal inheritance. Variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) genes and kinetoplast (mitochondrial) DNA maxi- and minicircles were extracted from each genome to examine how each of these components was inherited in the hybrid progeny. The same bioinformatic approaches were applied to an additional 37 genomes representing the diversity of T. brucei in subsaharan Africa and T. evansi. SNP analysis provided evidence of crossover events affecting all 11 pairs of megabase chromosomes and demonstrated that polyploid hybrids were formed post-meiotically and not by fusion of the parental diploid cells. VSGs and kinetoplast DNA minicircles were inherited biparentally, with approximately equal numbers from each parent, whereas maxicircles were inherited uniparentally. Extrapolation of these findings to field isolates allowed us to distinguish clonal descent from hybridization by comparing maxicircle genotype to VSG and minicircle repertoires. Discordance between maxicircle genotype and VSG and minicircle repertoires indicated inter-lineage hybridization. Significantly, some of the hybridization events we identified involved human infective and non-human infective trypanosomes circulating in the same geographic areas.

Advances in lentil production through heterosis: Evaluating generations and breeding systems.

Heterosis is defined as increased performance of the F1 hybrid relative to its parents. In the current study, a cohort of populations and parents were created to evaluate and understand heterosis across generations (i.e., F1 to F3) in lentil, a self-pollinated annual diploid (2n = 2× = 14) crop species. Lentil plants were evaluated for heterotic traits in terms of plant height, biomass fresh weight, seed number, yield per plant and 100 grain weight. A total of 47 selected lentil genotypes were cross hybridized to generate 72 F1 hybrids. The F1 hybrids from the top five crosses exhibited between 31%-62% heterosis for seed number with reference to the better parent. The five best performing heterotic crosses were selected with a negative control for evaluation at the subsequent F2 generation and only the tails of the distribution taken forward to be assessed in the F3 generation as a sub selection. Overall, heterosis decreases across the subsequent generations for all traits studied. However, some individual genotypes were identified at the F2 and sub-selected F3 generations with higher levels of heterosis than the best F1 mean value (hybrid mimics). The phenotypic data for the selected F2 and sub selected F3 hybrids were analysed, and the study suggested that 100 grain weight was the biggest driver of yield followed by seed number. A genetic diversity analysis of all the F1 parents failed to correlate genetic distance and divergence among parents with heterotic F1's. Therefore, genetic distance was not a key factor to determine heterosis in lentil. The study highlights the challenges associated with different breeding systems for heterosis (i.e., F1 hybrid-based breeding systems and/or via hybrid mimics) but demonstrates the potential significant gains that could be achieved in lentil productivity.

Polymorphic microsatellite markers demonstrate hybridization and interspecific gene flow between lumbricid earthworm species, Eisenia andrei and E. fetida.

The lumbricid earthworms Eisenia andrei (Ea) and E. fetida (Ef) have been used as model organisms for studies on hybridization. Previously they have been identified by species specific sequences of the mitochondrial COI gene of maternal origin ('a' or 'f') and the nuclear 28S gene of maternal/paternal origin ('A' or 'F'). In experimental crosses, these hermaphroditic species produce progeny of genotypes Ea (aAA), Ef (fFF) and hybrids (aAF and fFA) originating by self-fertilization or cross-fertilization. To facilitate studies on new aspects of the breeding biology and hybridization of earthworms, polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed based on 12 Ea and 12 Ef specimens and validated on DNA samples extracted from 24 genotyped specimens (aAA, fFF, aAF and fFA) from three laboratory-raised families and 10 of them were applied in the present study. The results indicate that microsatellite markers are valuable tools for tracking interspecific gene flow between these species.

Morphologic, genetic, and biogeographic continua among subspecies hinder the conservation of threatened taxa: the case of Centaurea aspera ssp. scorpiurifolia (Asteraceae).

Subspecies are widely included as conservation units because of their potential to become new species. However, their practical recognition includes variable criteria, such as morphological, genetic, geographic and other differences. Centaurea aspera ssp. scorpiurifolia is a threatened taxon endemic to Andalusia (Spain), which coexists in most of its distribution area with similar taxa. Because of the difficulty to identify it using morphology alone, we aimed to sample all the populations cited as ssp. scorpiurifolia as exhaustively as possible, morphologically characterise them, and analyse their genetic structuring using microsatellites, to better understand difficulties when conserving subspecies. Three different Centaurea species were found which were easily identified. Within C. aspera, two genetic populations and some admixed individuals were observed, one including ssp. scorpiurifolia individuals and the other including individuals identified as subspecies aspera, stenophylla, and scorpiurifolia. A morphological continuum between these two genetic populations and a wide overlapping of their biogeographic distribution were also found. This continuum can affect the conservation of ssp. scorpiurifolia because of potential misidentifications and harmful effects of subspecific hybridization. Misidentifications could be partly overcome by using as many different traits as possible, and conservation priority should be given to populations representative of the ends of this continuum.

Analysis of ancestry heterozygosity suggests that hybrid incompatibilities in threespine stickleback are environment dependent.

Hybrid incompatibilities occur when interactions between opposite ancestry alleles at different loci reduce the fitness of hybrids. Most work on incompatibilities has focused on those that are "intrinsic," meaning they affect viability and sterility in the laboratory. Theory predicts that ecological selection can also underlie hybrid incompatibilities, but tests of this hypothesis using sequence data are scarce. In this article, we compiled genetic data for F2 hybrid crosses between divergent populations of threespine stickleback fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.) that were born and raised in either the field (seminatural experimental ponds) or the laboratory (aquaria). Because selection against incompatibilities results in elevated ancestry heterozygosity, we tested the prediction that ancestry heterozygosity will be higher in pond-raised fish compared to those raised in aquaria. We found that ancestry heterozygosity was elevated by approximately 3% in crosses raised in ponds compared to those raised in aquaria. Additional analyses support a phenotypic basis for incompatibility and suggest that environment-specific single-locus heterozygote advantage is not the cause of selection on ancestry heterozygosity. Our study provides evidence that, in stickleback, a coarse-albeit indirect-signal of environment-dependent hybrid incompatibility is reliably detectable and suggests that extrinsic incompatibilities can evolve before intrinsic incompatibilities.

The genomic history of southwestern Chinese populations demonstrated massive population migration and admixture among proto-Hmong-Mien speakers and incoming migrants.

Southwest China was the crossroad for the initial settler people of East Asia, which shows the highest diversity in languages and genetics. This region played a significant role in the formation of the genetic makeup of the proto-Hmong-Mien-speaking people and in the north-to-south human expansion during the Neolithic-to-historic transformation. Their genetic history covering migration events and the admixture processes still needs to be further explored. Therefore, in the current study, we have generated genome-wide data from three genomic aspects covering autosomal, mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal regions in 260 Hmong-Mien, Tibeto-Burman, and Sinitic people from 29 different southwestern Chinese groups, and further analyzed them with 2676 published modern and ancient Eurasian genomes. Here, we have noticed a new southwestern East Asian genetic cline composed of the Hmong-Mien-specific ancestry enriched in modern Hmong and Pathen. This newly identified southern inland East Asian lineage contributed to a great extent of the gene pool in the modern southern East Asians. We also have observed genetic substructure among Hmong-Mien-speaking populations. The southern Hmong-Mien-speaking people showed more genetic affinity with modern Tai-Kadai/Austroasiatic people, while the northern Hmong-Mien speakers expressed a closer genetic connection with the Neolithic-to-modern northern East Asians. Moreover, southwestern Sinitic populations had a strong genomic affinity with the adjacent Hmong-Mien-speaking populations and the lowlander Tibeto-Burman-speaking populations, which suggested the large-scale genetic admixture occurred between them. Allele-sharing-based qpAdm/qpGraph results further confirmed that all included southwestern Chinese populations could be modeled as a mixed result of the major ancestry component from the northern millet farmers in the Yellow River basin and the minor ancestry component from the southern rice farmers in the Yangtze River basin. Usually, this newly identified Hmong-Mien-associated southern East Asian ancestry could improve our understanding of the full-scale genetic landscape of the evolutionary and admixture history of southwestern East Asians. Further ancient genomic studies from southeastern China are required to shed deeper light on our established phylogeny context.

Genome-wide differences in gene expression and alternative splicing in developing embryo and endosperm, and between F1 hybrids and their parental pure lines in sorghum.

KEY MESSAGE: Developing embryo and endosperm of sorghum show substantial and multifaceted differences in gene expression and alternative splicing, which are potentially relevant to heterosis. Differential regulation of gene expression and alternative splicing (AS) are major molecular mechanisms dictating plant growth and development, as well as underpinning heterosis in F1 hybrids. Here, using deep RNA-sequencing we analyzed differences in genome-wide gene expression and AS between developing embryo and endosperm, and between F1 hybrids and their pure-line parents in sorghum. We uncover dramatic differences in both gene expression and AS between embryo and endosperm with respect to gene features and functions, which are consistent with the fundamentally different biological roles of the two tissues. Accordingly, F1 hybrids showed substantial and multifaceted differences in gene expression and AS compared with their pure-line parents, again with clear tissue specificities including extents of difference, genes involved and functional enrichments. Our results provide useful transcriptome resources as well as novel insights for further elucidation of seed yield heterosis in sorghum and related crops.

Molecular evidence and ecological niche modeling reveal an extensive hybrid zone among three Bursera species (section Bullockia).

The genus Bursera, includes ~100 shrub and trees species in tropical dry forests with its center of diversification and endemism in Mexico. Morphologically intermediate individuals have commonly been observed in Mexican Bursera in areas where closely related species coexist. These individuals are assumed to result from interspecific hybridization, but no molecular evidence has supported their hybrid origins. This study aimed to investigate the existence of interspecific hybridization among three Mexican Bursera species (Bullockia section: B. cuneata, B. palmeri and B. bipinnata) from nine populations based on DNA sequences (three nuclear and four chloroplast regions) and ecological niche modeling for three past and two future scenario projections. Results from the only two polymorphic nuclear regions (PEPC, ETS) supported the hybrid origin of morphologically intermediate individuals and revealed that B. cuneata and B. bipinnata are the parental species that are genetically closer to the putative hybrids. Ecological niche modeling accurately predicted the occurrence of putative hybrid populations and showed a potential hybrid zone extending in a larger area (74,000 km2) than previously thought. Paleo-reconstructions showed a potential hybrid zone existing from the Last Glacial Maximum (~ 21 kya) that has increased since the late Holocene to the present. Future ecological niche projections show an increment of suitability of the potential hybrid zone for 2050 and 2070 relative to the present. Hybrid zone changes responded mostly to an increase in elevational ranges. Our study provides the first insight of an extensive hybrid zone among three Mexican Bursera species based on molecular data and ecological niche modeling.

Selective sorting of ancestral introgression in maize and teosinte along an elevational cline.

While often deleterious, hybridization can also be a key source of genetic variation and pre-adapted haplotypes, enabling rapid evolution and niche expansion. Here we evaluate these opposing selection forces on introgressed ancestry between maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) and its wild teosinte relative, mexicana (Zea mays ssp. mexicana). Introgression from ecologically diverse teosinte may have facilitated maize's global range expansion, in particular to challenging high elevation regions (> 1500 m). We generated low-coverage genome sequencing data for 348 maize and mexicana individuals to evaluate patterns of introgression in 14 sympatric population pairs, spanning the elevational range of mexicana, a teosinte endemic to the mountains of Mexico. While recent hybrids are commonly observed in sympatric populations and mexicana demonstrates fine-scale local adaptation, we find that the majority of mexicana ancestry tracts introgressed into maize over 1000 generations ago. This mexicana ancestry seems to have maintained much of its diversity and likely came from a common ancestral source, rather than contemporary sympatric populations, resulting in relatively low FST between mexicana ancestry tracts sampled from geographically distant maize populations. Introgressed mexicana ancestry in maize is reduced in lower-recombination rate quintiles of the genome and around domestication genes, consistent with pervasive selection against introgression. However, we also find mexicana ancestry increases across the sampled elevational gradient and that high introgression peaks are most commonly shared among high-elevation maize populations, consistent with introgression from mexicana facilitating adaptation to the highland environment. In the other direction, we find patterns consistent with adaptive and clinal introgression of maize ancestry into sympatric mexicana at many loci across the genome, suggesting that maize also contributes to adaptation in mexicana, especially at the lower end of its elevational range. In sympatric maize, in addition to high introgression regions we find many genomic regions where selection for local adaptation maintains steep gradients in introgressed mexicana ancestry across elevation, including at least two inversions: the well-characterized 14 Mb Inv4m on chromosome 4 and a novel 3 Mb inversion Inv9f surrounding the macrohairless1 locus on chromosome 9. Most outlier loci with high mexicana introgression show no signals of sweeps or local sourcing from sympatric populations and so likely represent ancestral introgression sorted by selection, resulting in correlated but distinct outcomes of introgression in different contemporary maize populations.

Against the Odds: Hybrid Zones between Mangrove Killifish Species with Different Mating Systems.

Different mating systems are expected to affect the extent and direction of hybridization. Due to the different levels of sexual conflict, the weak inbreeder/strong outbreeder (WISO) hypothesis predicts that gametes from self-incompatible (SI) species should outcompete gametes from self-compatible (SC) ones. However, other factors such as timing of selfing and unilateral incompatibilities may also play a role on the direction of hybridization. In addition, differential mating opportunities provided by different mating systems are also expected to affect the direction of introgression in hybrid zones involving outcrossers and selfers. Here, we explored these hypotheses with a unique case of recent hybridization between two mangrove killifish species with different mating systems, Kryptolebias ocellatus (obligately outcrossing) and K. hermaphroditus (predominantly self-fertilizing) in two hybrid zones in southeast Brazil. Hybridization rates were relatively high (~20%), representing the first example of natural hybridization between species with different mating systems in vertebrates. All F1 individuals were sired by the selfing species. Backcrossing was small, but mostly asymmetrical with the SI parental species, suggesting pattern commonly observed in plant hybrid zones with different mating systems. Our findings shed light on how contrasting mating systems may affect the direction and extent of gene flow between sympatric species, ultimately affecting the evolution and maintenance of hybrid zones.

Transcriptome-derived microsatellite markers for population diversity analysis in Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen.

BACKGROUND: The medicinal woody leguminous genus Archidendron F. Mueller serves as important herbal resources for curing upper respiratory tract infection, acute pharyngitis, tonsillitis, and gastroenteritis. However, genomic resources including transcriptomic sequences and molecular markers remain scarce in the genus. METHODS AND RESULTS: Transcriptome sequencing, genic microsatellite marker development, and population diversity analysis were conducted in Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen. Flower and flower bud transcriptomes were de novo assembled into 173,172 transcripts, with an average transcript length of 1597.3 bp and an N50 length of 2427 bp. A total of 34,701 microsatellite loci were identified from 26,716 (15.4 %) transcripts. Primer pairs were designed for 718 microsatellite loci, of which 456 (63.5 %) were polymorphic. Of the 456 polymorphic markers, 391 (85.7 %) and 402 (88.1 %) were transferable to A. lucidum (Benth.) I.C. Nielsen and A. multifoliolatum (H.Q. Wen) T.L. Wu, respectively. Using a subset of 15 microsatellite markers, relatively high genetic diversity was detected over two A. clypearia populations, with overall mean expected heterozygosity (He) being 0.707 and demonstrating the necessity of conservation. Relatively low differentiation between the two populations was revealed despite the distant separation (about 700 km), with overall inbreeding coefficient of sub-population to the total population (Fst) being 8.7 %. CONCLUSIONS: This study represents the first attempt to conduct transcriptome sequencing, SSR marker development, and population genetics analysis in the medicinally important genus Archidendron. Our results will offer valuable resources and information for further genetic studies and practical applications in Archidendron and the related taxa.

Genomic insights into the origin, domestication and diversification of Brassica juncea.

Despite early domestication around 3000 BC, the evolutionary history of the ancient allotetraploid species Brassica juncea (L.) Czern & Coss remains uncertain. Here, we report a chromosome-scale de novo assembly of a yellow-seeded B. juncea genome by integrating long-read and short-read sequencing, optical mapping and Hi-C technologies. Nuclear and organelle phylogenies of 480 accessions worldwide supported that B. juncea is most likely a single origin in West Asia, 8,000-14,000 years ago, via natural interspecific hybridization. Subsequently, new crop types evolved through spontaneous gene mutations and introgressions along three independent routes of eastward expansion. Selective sweeps, genome-wide trait associations and tissue-specific RNA-sequencing analysis shed light on the domestication history of flowering time and seed weight, and on human selection for morphological diversification in this versatile species. Our data provide a comprehensive insight into the origin and domestication and a foundation for genomics-based breeding of B. juncea.

Legacy genetics of Arachis cardenasii in the peanut crop shows the profound benefits of international seed exchange.

The narrow genetics of most crops is a fundamental vulnerability to food security. This makes wild crop relatives a strategic resource of genetic diversity that can be used for crop improvement and adaptation to new agricultural challenges. Here, we uncover the contribution of one wild species accession, Arachis cardenasii GKP 10017, to the peanut crop (Arachis hypogaea) that was initiated by complex hybridizations in the 1960s and propagated by international seed exchange. However, until this study, the global scale of the dispersal of genetic contributions from this wild accession had been obscured by the multiple germplasm transfers, breeding cycles, and unrecorded genetic mixing between lineages that had occurred over the years. By genetic analysis and pedigree research, we identified A. cardenasii-enhanced, disease-resistant cultivars in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas. These cultivars provide widespread improved food security and environmental and economic benefits. This study emphasizes the importance of wild species and collaborative networks of international expertise for crop improvement. However, it also highlights the consequences of the implementation of a patchwork of restrictive national laws and sea changes in attitudes regarding germplasm that followed in the wake of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Today, the botanical collections and multiple seed exchanges which enable benefits such as those revealed by this study are drastically reduced. The research reported here underscores the vital importance of ready access to germplasm in ensuring long-term world food security.

SNP-based assessment of genetic purity and diversity in maize hybrid breeding.

Assessment of genetic purity of parental inbred lines and their resultant F1 hybrids is an essential quality control check in maize hybrid breeding, variety release and seed production. In this study, genetic purity, parent-offspring relationship and diversity among the inbred lines were assessed using 92 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. A total of 188 maize genotypes, comprising of 26 inbred lines, four doubled haploid (DH) lines and 158 single-cross maize hybrids were investigated in this study using Kompetitive Allele Specific Polymerase Chain Reaction (KASP) genotyping assays. The bi-allelic data was analyzed for genetic purity and diversity parameters using GenAlex software. The SNP markers were highly polymorphic and 90% had polymorphic information content (PIC) values of > 0.3. Pairwise genetic distances among the lines ranged from 0.05 to 0.56, indicating a high level of dissimilarity among the inbred lines. A maximum genetic distance of (0.56) was observed between inbred lines CKDHL0089 and CML443 while the lowest (0.05) was between I-42 and I-40. The majority (67%) of the inbred lines studied were genetically pure with residual heterozygosity of <5%, while only 33% had heterozygosity levels of >5%. Inbred lines, which were not pure, require purification through further inbreeding. Cluster analysis partitioned the lines into three distinct genetic clusters with the potential to contribute new beneficial alleles to the maize breeding program. Out of the 68 hybrids (43%) that passed the parent-offspring test, seven hybrids namely; SCHP29, SCHP95, SCHP94, SCHP134, SCHP44, SCHP114 and SCHP126, were selected as potential candidates for further evaluation and release due to their outstanding yield performance.

Hybridization with mountain hares increases the functional allelic repertoire in brown hares.

Brown hares (Lepus europaeus Pallas) are able to hybridize with mountain hares (L. timidus Linnaeus) and produce fertile offspring, which results in cross-species gene flow. However, not much is known about the functional significance of this genetic introgression. Using targeted sequencing of candidate loci combined with mtDNA genotyping, we found the ancestral genetic diversity in the Finnish brown hare to be small, likely due to founder effect and range expansion, while gene flow from mountain hares constitutes an important source of functional genetic variability. Some of this variability, such as the alleles of the mountain hare thermogenin (uncoupling protein 1, UCP1), might have adaptive advantage for brown hares, whereas immunity-related MHC alleles are reciprocally exchanged and maintained via balancing selection. Our study offers a rare example where an expanding species can increase its allelic variability through hybridization with a congeneric native species, offering a route to shortcut evolutionary adaptation to the local environmental conditions.