Analysis of early effects of human APOE isoforms on Alzheimer's disease and type III hyperlipoproteinemia pathways using knock-in rat models with humanized APP and APOE.

APOE is a major genetic factor in late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD), with APOE4 increasing risk, APOE3 acting as neutral, and APOE2 offering protection. APOE also plays key role in lipid metabolism, affecting both peripheral and central systems, particularly in lipoprotein metabolism in triglyceride and cholesterol regulation. APOE2 is linked to Hyperlipoproteinemia type III (HLP), characterized by mixed hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia due to impaired binding to Low-Density Lipoproteins receptors. To explore the impact of human APOE isoforms on LOAD and lipid metabolism, we developed Long-Evans rats with human APOE2, APOE3, or APOE4 in place of rat Apoe. These rats were crossed with those carrying a humanized App allele to express human Aß, which is more aggregation-prone than rodent Aß, enabling the study of human APOE-human Aß interactions. In this study, we focused on 80-day-old adolescent rats to analyze early changes that may be associated with the later development of LOAD. We found that APOE2hAß rats had the highest levels of APOE in serum and brain, with no significant transcriptional differences among isoforms, suggesting variations in protein translation or stability. Aß43 levels were significantly higher in male APOE4hAß rats compared to APOE2hAß rats. However, no differences in Tau or phosphorylated Tau levels were observed across the APOE isoforms. Neuroinflammation analysis revealed lower levels of IL13, IL4 and IL5 in APOE2hAß males compared to APOE4hAß males. Neuronal transmission and plasticity tests using field Input-Output (I/O) and long-term potentiation (LTP) recordings showed increased excitability in all APOE-carrying rats, with LTP deficits in APOE2hAßand APOE4hAß rats compared to ApoehAß and APOE3hAß rats. Additionally, a lipidomic analysis of 222 lipid molecular species in serum samples showed that APOE2hAß rats displayed elevated triglycerides and cholesterol, making them a valuable model for studying HLP. These rats also exhibited elevated levels of phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingomyelin, and lysophosphatidylcholine. Minimal differences in lipid profiles between APOE3hAß and APOE4hAß rats reflect findings from mouse models. Future studies will include comprehensive lipidomic analyses in various CNS regions and at older ages to further validate these models and explore the effects of APOE isoforms on lipid metabolism in relation to AD pathology.

Applicability of Diagnostic Criteria and High Prevalence of Familial Dysbetalipoproteinemia in Russia: A Pilot Study.

Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (FD) is a highly atherogenic genetically based lipid disorder with an underestimated actual prevalence. In recent years, several biochemical algorithms have been developed to diagnose FD using available laboratory tests. The practical applicability of FD diagnostic criteria and the prevalence of FD in Russia have not been previously assessed. We demonstrated that the diagnostic algorithms of FD, including the diagnostic apoB levels, require correction, taking into account the distribution of apoB levels in the population. At the same time, a triglycerides cutoff ≥ 1.5 mmol/L may be a useful tool in identifying subjects with FD. In this study, a high prevalence of FD was detected: 0.67% (one in 150) based on the ε2ε2 haplotype and triglycerides levels ≥ 1.5 mmol/L. We also analyzed the presence and pathogenicity of APOE variants associated with autosomal dominant FD in a large research sample.

Composition and distribution of lipoproteins after evolocumab in familial dysbetalipoproteinemia: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9 (PCSK9) monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) reduce fasting and post fat load cholesterol in non-HDL and intermediate density lipoprotein (IDL) in familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (FD). However, the effect of PCSK9 mAbs on the distribution and composition of atherogenic lipoproteins in patients with FD is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of the PCSK9 mAb evolocumab added to standard lipid-lowering therapy in patients with FD on fasting and post fat load lipoprotein distribution and composition. METHODS: Randomized placebo-controlled double-blind crossover trial comparing evolocumab (140 mg subcutaneous every 2 weeks) with placebo during two 12-week treatment periods. Patients received an oral fat load at the start and end of each treatment period. Apolipoproteins (apo) were measured with ultracentrifugation, gradient gel electrophoresis, retinyl palmitate and SDS-PAGE. RESULTS: PCSK9 mAbs significantly reduced particle number of all atherogenic lipoproteins, with a stronger effect on smaller lipoproteins than on larger lipoproteins (e.g. IDL-apoB 49%, 95%confidence interval (CI) 41-59 and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)-apoB 33%, 95%CI 16-50). Furthermore, PCSK9 mAbs lowered cholesterol more than triglyceride (TG) in VLDL, IDL and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (e.g. VLDL-C 48%, 95%CI 29-63%; and VLDL-TG 20%, 95%CI 6.3-41%). PCSK9 mAbs did not affect the post fat load response of chylomicrons. CONCLUSION: PCSK9 mAbs added to standard lipid-lowering therapy in FD patients significantly reduced lipoprotein particle number, in particular the smaller and more cholesterol-rich lipoproteins (i.e. IDL and LDL). PCSK9 mAbs did not affect chylomicron metabolism. It seems likely that the observed effects are achieved by increased hepatic lipoprotein clearance, but the specific working mechanism of PCSK9 mAbs in FD patients remains to be elucidated.

Dietary recommendations for dysbetalipoproteinemia: A need for better evidence.

The increased risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with dysbetalipoproteinemia (DBL) is well documented and is associated with the dysfunctional metabolism of remnant lipoproteins. Although these patients are known to respond well to lipid-lowering medication including statins and fibrates, the best dietary approach to lower remnant lipoprotein accumulation and to prevent cardiovascular outcomes remain unclear. Indeed, current evidence is based on studies published mainly in the 1970s, which comprise small sample sizes and methodological limitations. This review aims to summarize nutritional studies performed in DBL patients to date and to discuss potential avenues in this field and future areas of research.

Contribution of APOE Genetic Variants to Dyslipidemia.

BACKGROUND: apo (apolipoprotein) E has crucial role in lipid metabolism. The genetic variation in APOE gene is associated with monogenic disorders and contributes to polygenic hypercholesterolemia and to interindividual variability in cholesterol. APOE rare variants may be involved in the phenotype of genetic hyperlipidemias. METHODS: Exon 4 of APOE were sequenced in all consecutive unrelated subjects with primary hyperlipidemia from a Lipid Unit (n=3667) and 822 random subjects from the Aragon Workers Health Study. Binding affinity of VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein) to LDL receptor of pathogenic predicted apoE variants was analyzed in vitro. Lipoprotein particle number, size, and composition were studied by nuclear magnetic resonance. RESULTS: In addition to common polymorphisms giving rise to APOE2 and APOE4, 14 gene variants were found in exon 4 of APOE in 65 subjects. p.(Leu167del) in 8 patients with isolated hypercholesterolemia and in 8 patients with combined hyperlipidemia. Subjects with p.(Arg121Trp), p.(Gly145Asp), p.(Arg154Ser), p.(Arg163Cys), p.(Arg165Trp), and p.(Arg168His) variants met dysbetalipoproteinemia lipid criteria and were confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance. VLDL affinity for the LDL receptor of p.(Arg163Cys) and p.(Arg165Trp) heterozygous carriers had intermedium affinity between APOE2/2 and APOE3/3. p.(Gly145Asp) and p.(Pro220Leu) variants had higher affinity than APOE3/3. CONCLUSIONS: APOE genetic variation contributes to the development of combined hyperlipidemia, usually dysbetalipoproteinemia, and familial hypercholesterolemia. The lipid phenotype in heterozygous for dysbetalipoproteinemia-associated mutations is milder than the homozygous APOE2/2-associated phenotype. Subjects with dysbetalipoproteinemia and absence of APOE2/2 are good candidates for the study of pathogenic variants in APOE. However, more investigation is required to elucidate the significance of rarer variants of apoE.

Diagnosis of Familial Dysbetalipoproteinemia Based on the Lipid Abnormalities Driven by APOE2/E2 Genotype.

BACKGROUND: Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (FDBL) is a monogenic disease due to variants in APOE with a highly variable phenotype. Current diagnostic lipid-based methods have important limitations. The objective is twofold: to define characteristics of dysbetalipoproteinemia (DBL) based on the analysis of APOE in patients from a lipid unit and in a sample from the general population, and to propose a screening algorithm for FDBL. METHODS: Lipids and APOE genotype from consecutive unrelated subjects from Miguel Servet University Hospital (MSUH) (n 3603), subjects from the general population participants of the Aragon Workers Health Study (AWHS) (n 4981), and selected subjects from external lipid units (Ext) (n 390) were used to define DBL criteria and to train and validate a screening tool. RESULTS: Thirty-five subjects from MSUH, 21 subjects from AWHS, and 31 subjects from Ext were APOE2/2 homozygous. The combination of non high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDLc)/apoB 1.7 plus triglycerides/apoB 1.35, in mg/dL (non-HDLc [mmol/L]/apolipoprotein B (apoB) [g/L] 4.4 and triglycerides [mmol/L]/apoB [g/L] 3.5), provided the best diagnostic performance for the identification of subjects with hyperlipidemia and APOE2/2 genotype (sensitivity 100 in the 3 cohorts, and specificity 92.8 [MSUH], 80.9 [AWHS], and 77.6 [Ext]). This improves the performance of previous algorithms. Similar sensitivity and specificity were observed in APOE2/2 subjects receiving lipid-lowering drugs. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of non-HDLc/apoB and triglycerides/apoB ratios is a valuable tool to diagnose DBL in patients with hyperlipidemia with or without lipid-lowering drugs. FDBL diagnosis requires DBL and the presence of a compatible APOE genotype. Most adult APOE2/2 subjects express DBL, making FDBL as common as familial hypercholesterolemia in the population.

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol measurement in Familial Dysbetalipoproteinemia.

AIM: To compare LDL-C concentrations using the Friedewald formula, the Martin-Hopkins formula, a direct assay and polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis (PGGE) to the reference standard density gradient ultracentrifugation in patients with Familial Dysbetalipoproteinemia (FD) patients. We also compared non-HDL-cholesterol concentrations by two methods. METHODS: For this study data from 28 patients with genetically confirmed FD from the placebo arm of the EVOLVE-FD trial were used. Four different methods for determining LDL-C were compared with ultracentrifugation. Non-HDL-C was measured with standard assays and compared to ultracentrifugation. Correlation coefficients and Bland-Altman plots were used to compare the methods. RESULTS: Mean age of the 28 FD patients was 62 ± 9 years, 43 % were female and 93 % had an ɛ2ɛ2 genotype. LDL-C determined by Friedewald (R2 = 0.62, p <0.01), Martin-Hopkins (R2 = 0.50, p = 0.01) and the direct assay (R2 = 0.41, p = 0.03) correlated with density gradient ultracentrifugation. However, Bland-Altman plots showed considerable over- or underestimation by the four methods compared to ultracentrifugation. Non-HDL-C showed good correlation and agreement. CONCLUSION: In patients with FD, all four methods investigated over- or underestimated LDL-C concentrations compared with ultracentrifugation. In contrast, standard non-HDL-C assays performed well, emphasizing the use of non-HDL-C in patients with FD.

Effect of evolocumab on fasting and post fat load lipids and lipoproteins in familial dysbetalipoproteinemia.

BACKGROUND: Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (FD) is the second most common monogenic lipid disorder (prevalence 1 in 850-3500), characterized by postprandial remnant accumulation and associated with increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Many FD patients do not achieve non-HDL-C treatment goals, indicating the need for additional lipid-lowering treatment options. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of the PCSK9 monoclonal antibody evolocumab added to standard lipid-lowering therapy on fasting and post fat load lipids and lipoproteins in patients with FD. METHODS: A randomized placebo-controlled double-blind crossover trial comparing evolocumab (140 mg subcutaneous every 2 weeks) with placebo during two 12-week treatment periods. At the start and end of each treatment period patients received an oral fat load. The primary endpoint was the 8-hour post fat load non-HDL-C area under the curve (AUC). Secondary endpoints included fasting and post fat load lipids and lipoproteins. RESULTS: In total, 28 patients completed the study. Mean age was 62±9 years and 93% had an Ɛ2Ɛ2 genotype. Evolocumab reduced the 8-hour post fat load non-HDL-C AUC with 49% (95%CI 42-55) and apolipoprotein B (apoB) AUC with 47% (95%CI 41-53). Other fasting and absolute post fat load lipids and lipoproteins including triglycerides and remnant-cholesterol were also significantly reduced by evolocumab. However, evolocumab did not have significant effects on the rise above fasting levels that occurred after consumption of the oral fat load. CONCLUSIONS: Evolocumab added to standard lipid-lowering therapy significantly reduced fasting and absolute post fat load concentrations of non-HDL-C, apoB and other atherogenic lipids and lipoproteins in FD patients. The clinically significant decrease in lipids and lipoproteins can be expected to translate into a reduction in CVD risk in these high-risk patients.

Dysbetalipoproteinemia Is Associated With Increased Risk of Coronary and Peripheral Vascular Disease.

CONTEXT: Dysbetalipoproteinemia (DBL) is a disorder in which remnant lipoproteins accumulate in the plasma due to a genetic apolipoprotein E dysfunction in conjunction with the presence of secondary metabolic factors. An increased risk of both coronary and peripheral vascular disease (PVD) has been observed in these patients in retrospective studies. OBJECTIVE: The primary objective was to compare the incidence of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and PVD in a cohort of patients with DBL compared with normolipidemic controls. As a secondary objective, the incidence of ASCVD and PVD was compared between patients with DBL and patients with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). METHODS: A total of 221 patients with DBL, 725 patients with FH, and 1481 normolipidemic controls were included in the study. The data were obtained by review of medical records. RESULTS: In patients with DBL, there was an overall excess risk of PVD (hazard ratio [HR] 13.58, 95% CI 4.76-38.75) and ASCVD (HR 3.55, 95% CI 2.17-5.83) (P < .0001) when compared with normolipidemic controls. When compared with patients with FH, an increased risk of PVD (HR 3.89, 95% CI 1.20-12.55, P = .02) was observed in patients with DBL. CONCLUSION: We demonstrated that the risks of ASCVD and PVD in DBL are >3-fold and >13-fold higher, respectively, than normolipidemic controls. Furthermore, the risk of PVD is ∼4-fold higher in DBL than in FH. Adequate screening of DBL is imperative to improve the clinical care of these patients by preventing the development of ASCVD.

Diagnosis of remnant hyperlipidaemia.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: In recent years, there has been interest for the development of simplified diagnosis algorithms of dysbetalipoproteinemia (DBL) in order to avoid the complex testing associated with the Fredrickson criteria (reference method). The purpose of this review is to present recent advances in the field of DBL with a focus on screening and diagnosis. RECENT FINDINGS: Recently, two different multi-step algorithms for the diagnosis of DBL have been published and their performance has been compared to the Fredrickson criteria. Furthermore, a recent large study demonstrated that only a minority (38%) of DBL patients are carriers of the E2/E2 genotype and that these individuals presented a more severe phenotype. SUMMARY: The current literature supports the fact that the DBL phenotype is more heterogeneous and complex than previously thought. Indeed, DBL patients can present with either mild or more severe phenotypes that can be distinguished as multifactorial remnant cholesterol disease and genetic apolipoprotein B deficiency. Measurement of apolipoprotein B as well as APOE gene testing are both essential elements in the diagnosis of DBL.

Establishing the relationship between familial dysbetalipoproteinemia and genetic variants in the APOE gene.

Familial Dysbetalipoproteinemia (FD) is the second most common monogenic dyslipidemia and is associated with a very high cardiovascular risk due to cholesterol-enriched remnant lipoproteins. FD is usually caused by a recessively inherited variant in the APOE gene (ε2ε2), but variants with dominant inheritance have also been described. The typical dysbetalipoproteinemia phenotype has a delayed onset and requires a metabolic hit. Therefore, the diagnosis of FD should be made by demonstrating both the genotype and dysbetalipoproteinemia phenotype. Next Generation Sequencing is becoming more widely available and can reveal variants in the APOE gene for which the relation with FD is unknown or uncertain. In this article, two approaches are presented to ascertain the relationship of a new variant in the APOE gene with FD. The comprehensive approach consists of determining the pathogenicity of the variant and its causal relationship with FD by confirming a dysbetalipoproteinemia phenotype, and performing in vitro functional tests and, optionally, in vivo postprandial clearance studies. When this is not feasible, a second, pragmatic approach within reach of clinical practice can be followed for individual patients to make decisions on treatment, follow-up, and family counseling.

Genetic and Mechanistic Insights into the Modulation of Circulating Lipoprotein (a) Concentration by Apolipoprotein E Isoforms.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] is a highly atherogenic lipoprotein species. A unique feature of Lp(a) is the strong genetic determination of its concentration. The LPA gene is responsible for up to 90% of the variance in Lp(a), but other genes also have an impact. RECENT FINDINGS: Genome-wide associations studies indicate that the APOE gene, encoding apolipoprotein E (apoE), is the second most important locus modulating Lp(a) concentrations. Population studies clearly show that carriers of the apoE2 variant (ε2) display reduced Lp(a) levels, the lowest concentrations being observed in ε2/ε2 homozygotes. This genotype can lead predisposed adults to develop dysbetalipoproteinemia, a lipid disorder characterized by sharp elevations in cholesterol and triglycerides. However, dysbetalipoproteinemia does not significantly modulate circulating Lp(a). Mechanistically, apoE appears to impair the production but not the catabolism of Lp(a). These observations underline the complexity of Lp(a) metabolism and provide key insights into the pathways governing Lp(a) synthesis and secretion.

Effect of PCSK9 inhibition with evolocumab on lipoprotein subfractions in familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (type III hyperlipidemia).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (FDBL) is a rare inborn lipid disorder characterized by the formation of abnormal triglyceride- and cholesterol-rich lipoproteins (remnant particles). Patients with FDBL have a high risk for atherosclerotic disease. The effect of PCSK9 inhibition on lipoproteins and its subfractions has not been evaluated in FDBL. METHODS: Three patients (65±7 years, 23±3 kg/m2, 2 females) with FDBL (diagnosed by isoelectrofocusing) and atherosclerosis (coronary and/or cerebro-vascular and/or peripheral arterial disease) resistant or intolerant to statin and fibrate therapy received evolocumab (140mg every 14 days). In addition to a fasting lipid profile (preparative ultracentrifugation), apoB and cholesterol concentrations were determined in 15 lipoprotein-subfractions (density gradient ultracentrifugation; d 1.006-1.21g/ml) before and after 12 weeks of evolocumab treatment. Patients with LDL-hypercholesterolemia (n = 8, 56±8 years, 31±7 kg/m2) and mixed hyperlipidemia (n = 5, 68±12 years, 30±1 kg/m2) also receiving evolocumab for 12 weeks were used for comparison. RESULTS: All patients tolerated PCSK9 inhibition well. PCSK9 inhibitors reduced cholesterol (29-37%), non-HDL-cholesterol (36-50%) and apoB (40-52%) in all patient groups including FDBL. In FDBL, PCSK9 inhibition reduced VLDL-cholesterol and the concentration of apoB containing lipoproteins throughout the whole density spectrum (VLDL, IDL, remnants, LDL). Lipoprotein(a) was decreased in all patient groups to a similar extent. CONCLUSIONS: This indicates that the dominant fraction of apoB-containing lipoproteins is reduced with PCSK9 inhibition, i.e. LDL in hypercholesterolemia and mixed hyperlipidemia, and cholesterol-rich VLDL, remnants and LDL in FDBL. PCSK9 inhibition may be a treatment option in patients with FDBL resistant or intolerant to statin and/or fibrate therapy.

Prospective Registry Study of Primary Dyslipidemia (PROLIPID): Rationale and Study Design.

INTRODUCTION: Primary dyslipidemias are inherited disorders in plasma lipoprotein metabolism that lead to serious cardiovascular and other complications. The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW) covers medical expenses, under the Research Program on Rare and Intractable Diseases, for homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), familial chylomicronemia, sitosterolemia, cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase deficiency, Tangier disease, and abetalipoproteinemia. Apolipoprotein A1 deficiency, heterozygous FH, and type III hyperlipoproteinemia are covered by the MHLW Pediatric Chronic Disease Program. Heterozygous FH and type III hyperlipoproteinemia are also important for their relatively common prevalence and, accordingly, high impact on Japanese public health by significant contribution to the overall prevalence of cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, a systemic survey of these diseases is mandatory to estimate their actual situation, such as prevalence, clinical manifestations, and prognoses among the Japanese population. The impact of these rare and intractable diseases on cardiovascular and other complications will likely be higher among Japanese people than other ethnicities because the general Japanese population has many cardioprotective aspects. The current study intends to conduct a multicenter registry of these diseases to assess their demographics and clinical features comprehensively. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The Prospective Registry Study of Primary Dyslipidemia is a registry-based prospective, observational, multicenter cohort study in Japan, enrolling patients who fulfill the Japanese clinical criteria of the primary dyslipidemias listed above, from 26 participating institutes from August 2015 to March 2023. A total of 1,000 patients will be enrolled in the study and followed for 10 years. Clinical parameters are collected, including physical and laboratory findings, genetic analysis, drugs, lifestyle management, and clinical events, especially cardiovascular events. The primary endpoint of this study is the new onset of cardiovascular disease and acute pancreatitis, and the secondary endpoint is death from any causes. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study complies with the Declaration of Helsinki, the Ethical Guidelines for Medical and Health Research Involving Human Subjects, and all other applicable laws and guidelines in Japan. The institutional review boards have approved this study protocol at all participating institutes. The final results are to be published at appropriate international conferences and in peer-reviewed journals.

Validating the NIH LDL-C equation in a specialized lipid cohort: Does it add up?

BACKGROUND: Guideline recommendations for the management of lipids in patients at risk for cardiovascular disease is largely based on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentration. LDL-C is commonly calculated by the Friedewald equation, which has many limitations. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) equation better estimates LDL-C, particularly in patients with hypertriglyceridemia and/or low LDL-C. We validated the NIH LDL-C equation at the first Canadian clinical laboratory to implement this equation. METHODS: A total of 3161 lipid ultracentrifugation results from a specialized lipid cohort of 2836 patients were included. LDL-C was calculated using the NIH and Friedewald equations and compared to LDL-C measured by ultracentrifugation. We determined the accuracy of these equations at treatment thresholds and developed NIH equation restriction criteria to ensure only accurate results are reported. RESULTS: Ultracentrifugation LDL-C more strongly correlated with NIH-calculated LDL-C (r2 = 0.889) than Friedewald-calculated LDL-C (r2 = 0.807) and resulted in fewer non-sensical negative LDL-C values. The correlation for NIH-calculated LDL-C improved to r2 = 0.975 after applying our restriction criteria. The NIH equation showed equivalent or superior concordance with ultracentrifugation at treatment thresholds. The LDL-C mean absolute difference increased with increasing TG and decreasing LDL-C concentrations, although the NIH equation was more robust under both conditions. CONCLUSIONS: We validated the NIH equation against ultracentrifugation in a cohort with a wide lipid concentration range, which supported its superiority over the Friedewald equation. We recommend clinical implementing the NIH equation for all patients except those with type III hyperlipoproteinemia or TG > 9.04 mmol/L, with an LDL-C lower reporting limit of <0.50 mmol/L.

Dysbetalipoproteinemia: Differentiating Multifactorial Remnant Cholesterol Disease From Genetic ApoE Deficiency.

CONTEXT: Dysbetalipoproteinemia (DBL) is characterized by the accumulation of remnant lipoprotein particles and associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular and peripheral vascular disease (PVD). DBL is thought to be mainly caused by the presence of an E2/E2 genotype of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene, in addition to environmental factors. However, there exists considerable phenotypic variability among DBL patients. OBJECTIVE: The objectives were to verify the proportion of DBL subjects, diagnosed using the gold standard Fredrickson criteria, who did not carry E2/E2 and to compare the clinical characteristics of DBL patients with and without E2/E2. METHODS: A total of 12 432 patients with lipoprotein ultracentrifugation as well as APOE genotype or apoE phenotype data were included in this retrospective study. RESULTS: Among the 12 432 patients, 4% (n = 524) were positive for Fredrickson criteria (F+), and only 38% (n = 197) of the F+ individuals were E2/E2. The F+ E2/E2 group had significantly higher remnant cholesterol concentration (3.44 vs 1.89 mmol/L) and had higher frequency of DBL-related xanthomas (24% vs 2%) and floating beta (95% vs 11%) than the F+ non-E2/E2 group (P < 0.0001). The F+ E2/E2 group had an independent higher risk of PVD (OR 11.12 [95% CI 1.87-66.05]; P = 0.008) events compared with the F+ non-E2/E2 group. CONCLUSION: In the largest cohort of DBL worldwide, we demonstrated that the presence of E2/E2 was associated with a more severe DBL phenotype. We suggest that 2 DBL phenotypes should be distinguished: the multifactorial remnant cholesterol disease and the genetic apoE deficiency disease.

Apolipoprotein E and Atherosclerosis.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The functions, genetic variations and impact of apolipoprotein E on lipoprotein metabolism in general are placed in the context of clinical practice dealing with moderate dyslipidaemia as well as dysbetalipoproteinemia, a highly atherogenic disorder and lipoprotein glomerulopathy. RECENT FINDINGS: Additional variants of apolipoprotein E and participation of apolipoprotein E in inflammation are of interest. The mostly favourable effects of apolipoprotein E2 as well as the atherogenic nature of apolipoproteinE4, which has an association with cognitive impairment, are confirmed. The contribution of remnant lipoproteins of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, of which dysbetalipoproteinemia represents an extreme, is explored in atherosclerosis. Mimetic peptides may present new therapeutic approaches. Apolipoprotein E is an important determinant of the lipid profile and cardiovascular health in the population at large and can precipitate dysbetalipoproteinemia and glomerulopathy. Awareness of apolipoprotein E polymorphisms should improve medical care.

Dysbetalipoproteinemia and other lipid abnormalities related to apo E. / Disbetalipoproteinemia y otras alteraciones relacionadas con la apolipoproteína E.

Dysbetalipoproteinaemia (or type III hyperlipoproteinaemia) is a severe mixed hyperlipidaemia resulting from the accumulation of remnant chylomicron and VLDL particles in plasma, also called ß-VLDL. It is caused by a defect in the recognition by hepatic LDL and lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) of ß-VLDL. Mutations in the APOE gene, especially in subjects homozygous for the ɛ2/ɛ2 allele, are responsible for this lack of receptor recognition. Dysbetalipoproteinaemia represents 2-5% of the mixed dyslipidaemias seen in Lipid Units, is highly atherogenic and predisposes to diffuse atheromatosis, either coronary, peripheral vascular, or carotid, so early diagnosis and treatment is necessary. The presence of hypertriglyceridaemia, with non-HDL cholesterol/apolipoprotein B ratios>1.43 (in mg/dL) followed by APOE genotyping is the method of choice in the diagnosis of dysbetalipoproteinaemia. It is a dyslipidaemia that responds well to hygienic-dietary treatment, although the combination of statin and fenofibrate is often necessary to achieve optimal control.

Hyperlipidemic myeloma, a rare form of acquired dysbetalipoproteinemia, in an HIV seropositive African female.

Dysbetalipoproteinemia (DBL) is an uncommon condition characterized by a mixed hyperlipidemia due to accumulation of remnant lipoproteins and is highly atherogenic. Typically, DBL is an autosomal recessive condition requiring an additional metabolic stress with reduced apolipoprotein E (apoE) function. However, DBL is also described in patients with multiple myeloma without the characteristic apoE2/E2 mutation seen in familial DBL. Although the underlying pathogenesis in these cases is not fully characterized, it is thought to occur due to interference with apoE function by antibodies produced from clonal plasma cells. Such cases are referred to as hyperlipidemic myeloma (HLM) and have rarely been described in the literature. To our knowledge there is no prior description of HLM in HIV positive patients in Africa. We describe a case of HLM in an African woman with underlying HIV infection who presented with phenotypic and biochemical features of DBL that responded poorly to lipid lowering therapy.