[The establishment, development and change to the modern quarantine system at Swatow seaport].

The right of seaports to quarantine in modern China was lost to western colonists in the 1880s. The establishment of the quarantine system at Swatow seaport made Swatow the first city in modern Guangdong to have such a system. This paper examines the content and development of the quarantine system at Swatow seaport and found the two main periods of the quarantine system development. 1883 -1926 was the period for the preliminary development of the quarantine system, which was under the management of the westerners. 1926 - 1949 was the period when it was regained by the then Chinese government but it was caught in a bid of multiple political powers before new China evolved. In such a process of power shifts and system changes, the benefits to the public were not valued and guaranteed. The development history of the quarantine system in modern Swatow seaport in the Republic of China Period mirrored the development of the quarantine system in China at that time.

"Debordering" public health: the changing patterns of health border in modern Europe.

According to David Fidler, the governance of infectious diseases evolved from the mid-nineteenth to the twenty-first century as a series of institutional arrangements: the International Sanitary Regulations (non-interference and disease control at borders), the World Health Organization vertical programs (malaria and smallpox eradication campaigns), and a post-Westphalian regime standing beyond state-centrism and national interest. But can international public health be reduced to such a Westphalian image? We scrutinize three strategies that brought health borders into prominence: pre-empting weak states (eastern Mediterranean in the nineteenth century); preventing the spread of disease through nation-building (Macedonian public health system in the 1920s); and debordering the fight against epidemics (1920-1921 Russian-Polish war and the Warsaw 1922 Sanitary Conference).

Debordering public health: the changing patterns of health border in modern Europe / Tirando as fronteiras da saúde pública: mudanças nos padrões de fronteira sanitária na Europa moderna

Abstract According to David Fidler, the governance of infectious diseases evolved from the mid-nineteenth to the twenty-first century as a series of institutional arrangements: the International Sanitary Regulations (non-interference and disease control at borders), the World Health Organization vertical programs (malaria and smallpox eradication campaigns), and a post-Westphalian regime standing beyond state-centrism and national interest. But can international public health be reduced to such a Westphalian image? We scrutinize three strategies that brought health borders into prominence: pre-empting weak states (eastern Mediterranean in the nineteenth century); preventing the spread of disease through nation-building (Macedonian public health system in the 1920s); and debordering the fight against epidemics (1920-1921 Russian-Polish war and the Warsaw 1922 Sanitary Conference).

Resumo Segundo David Fidler, a gestão de doenças infecciosas entre meados do século XIX e e o XXI guiou-se por uma série de acordos institucionais: Regulamento Sanitário Internacional (não interferência e controle de doenças em fronteiras), programas verticais da OMS (campanhas de erradicação da malária e varíola), e posicionamento pós-vestefaliano além do estado-centrismo e interesse nacional. Mas pode a saúde pública internacional ser reduzida à tal imagem vestefaliana? Examinamos três estratégias que destacaram as fronteiras sanitárias: prevenção em estados vulneráveis (Mediterrâneo oriental, século XIX); prevenção à disseminação de doenças via construção nacional (sistema público de saúde macedônico, anos 1920); remoção de fronteiras no combate às epidemias (guerra polaco-soviética, 1920-1921 e Conferência Sanitária de Varsóvia, 1922).

[Colleges of royal physicians and isolation hospitals to control public hygiene in Chile from 1879 to 1920]. / Protomedicatos y lazaretos como instituciones de control de la higiene pública en Chile entre 1879 y 1920.

This article investigates the emergence of two institutions for the control of public hygiene in Chile between 1879 and 1920: colleges of royal physicians and isolation hospitals using the case of smallpox in La Araucanía, a region located in the South of Chile. We cover the characteristics and context of these institutions that allowed the State of Chile to address the problems of public hygiene and to prompt health professionals to professionalize the practice of medicine. The liberal positivist state of the late nineteenth century understood that the issue of hygiene was not only a matter of individual responsibility but had a social, public, and environmental dimension. People practiced hygiene alongside the existence of hygienic and anti-hygienic environments. Therefore, hygiene, the royal colleges of physicians, health records, isolation hospitals, doctors, and vaccinators are studied. All of these components of the health care system of the time were in permanent tension with the central government authorities due to the insufficient resources provided by the state for the care of infected patients with smallpox. The study follows a qualitative methodology with a descriptive historiographic design. We used archival primary and secondary sources available in Chile and Germany. The results show that the presence of smallpox appeared ferociously in South-Central Chile in the second half of the 19th century and remained in La Araucanía until the first half of the 20th century. The extent to which smallpox spread, spawning fear and insecurity in people of different social classes, had as one of its leading causes the precarious conditions of health and hygiene of the population.

El presente artículo indaga la aparición de dos instituciones de control de la higiene pública en Chile entre los años 1879 y 1920: los protomedicatos y lazaretos. El objeto de estudio utiliza como caso la presencia de la viruela en La Araucanía. Se abordan las características y contexto que adquirió la instalación de estos dispositivos que permitieron al Estado de Chile operacionalizar el asunto de la higiene pública, lo que interpeló a los profesionales de la salud para avanzar a mayores niveles de perfeccionamiento del ejercicio profesional de la medicina. El Estado liberal positivista de fines de siglo XIX comprendió que el tema de la higiene no era solamente una cuestión de responsabilidad individual, sino que tenía una dimensión social, pública y medio ambiental. No sólo había personas que eran higiénicas, sino también ambientes higiénicos y antihigiénicos. Por tanto, se estudia la higiene, el tribunal del protomedicato, la hoja sanitaria, lazaretos, médicos y vacunadores; quienes estuvieron en permanente tensión con las autoridades del gobierno central debido a los insuficientes recursos proporcionados por el Estado para la atención de los enfermos contagiados con viruela. El estudio se orienta desde una metodología cualitativa con un diseño historiográfico con alcances descriptivos densos. Se han utilizado fuentes primarias y secundarias disponibles en archivos en Chile y Alemania. Los resultados evidencian que la presencia de viruela apareció violentamente en el centro sur de Chile en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX y permaneció en la Araucanía hasta la primera mitad del siglo XX. La violencia con que se desarrolló la viruela generó miedo e incertidumbre afectando a personas de diferentes clases sociales, y tuvo como una de sus causas principales las precarias condiciones de salubridad de la población.

Protomedicatos y lazaretos como instituciones de control de la higiene pública en Chile entre 1879 y 1920 / Colleges of royal physicians and isolation hospitals to control public hygiene in Chile from 1879 to 1920

El presente artículo indaga la aparición de dos instituciones de control de la higiene pública en Chile entre los años 1879 y 1920: los protomedicatos y lazaretos. El objeto de estudio utiliza como caso la presencia de la viruela en La Araucanía. Se abordan las características y contexto que adquirió la instalación de estos dispositivos que permitieron al Estado de Chile operacionalizar el asunto de la higiene pública, lo que interpeló a los profesionales de la salud para avanzar a mayores niveles de perfeccionamiento del ejercicio profesional de la medicina. El Estado liberal positivista de fines de siglo XIX comprendió que el tema de la higiene no era solamente una cuestión de responsabilidad individual, sino que tenía una dimensión social, pública y medio ambiental. No sólo había personas que eran higiénicas, sino también ambientes higiénicos y antihigiénicos. Por tanto, se estudia la higiene, el tribunal del protomedicato, la hoja sanitaria, lazaretos, médicos y vacunadores; quienes estuvieron en permanente tensión con las autoridades del gobierno central debido a los insuficientes recursos proporcionados por el Estado para la atención de los enfermos contagiados con viruela. El estudio se orienta desde una metodología cualitativa con un diseño historiográfico con alcances descriptivos densos. Se han utilizado fuentes primarias y secundarias disponibles en archivos en Chile y Alemania. Los resultados evidencian que la presencia de viruela apareció violentamente en el centro sur de Chile en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX y permaneció en la Araucanía hasta la primera mitad del siglo XX. La violencia con que se desarrolló la viruela generó miedo e incertidumbre afectando a personas de diferentes clases sociales, y tuvo como una de sus causas principales las precarias condiciones de salubridad de la población.

This article investigates the emergence of two institutions for the control of public hygiene in Chile between 1879 and 1920: colleges of royal physicians and isolation hospitals using the case of smallpox in La Araucanía, a region located in the South of Chile. We cover the characteristics and context of these institutions that allowed the State of Chile to address the problems of public hygiene and to prompt health professionals to professionalize the practice of medicine. The liberal positivist state of the late nineteenth century understood that the issue of hygiene was not only a matter of individual responsibility but had a social, public, and environmental dimension. People practiced hygiene alongside the existence of hygienic and anti-hygienic environments. Therefore, hygiene, the royal colleges of physicians, health records, isolation hospitals, doctors, and vaccinators are studied. All of these components of the health care system of the time were in permanent tension with the central government authorities due to the insufficient resources provided by the state for the care of infected patients with smallpox. The study follows a qualitative methodology with a descriptive historiographic design. We used archival primary and secondary sources available in Chile and Germany. The results show that the presence of smallpox appeared ferociously in South-Central Chile in the second half of the 19th century and remained in La Araucanía until the first half of the 20th century. The extent to which smallpox spread, spawning fear and insecurity in people of different social classes, had as one of its leading causes the precarious conditions of health and hygiene of the population.

An Analysis of the United States and United Kingdom Smallpox Epidemics (1901-5) - The Special Relationship that Tested Public Health Strategies for Disease Control.

At the end of the nineteenth century, the northern port of Liverpool had become the second largest in the United Kingdom. Fast transatlantic steamers to Boston and other American ports exploited this route, increasing the risk of maritime disease epidemics. The 1901-3 epidemic in Liverpool was the last serious smallpox outbreak in Liverpool and was probably seeded from these maritime contacts, which introduced a milder form of the disease that was more difficult to trace because of its long incubation period and occurrence of undiagnosed cases. The characteristics of these epidemics in Boston and Liverpool are described and compared with outbreaks in New York, Glasgow and London between 1900 and 1903. Public health control strategies, notably medical inspection, quarantine and vaccination, differed between the two countries and in both settings were inconsistently applied, often for commercial reasons or due to public unpopularity. As a result, smaller smallpox epidemics spread out from Liverpool until 1905. This paper analyses factors that contributed to this last serious epidemic using the historical epidemiological data available at that time. Though imperfect, these early public health strategies paved the way for better prevention of imported maritime diseases.

[The Infectious Disease Subsidiary Hospital of Rijeka] / Bolnica­podruznica za zarazne bolesti u Rijeci

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a hospital for infectious diseases in the Zenikovic area was operating in Rijeka as a hospital - subsidiary of the City Hospital of St. Spirit. After purchasing the property of the naval captain Dionysius Jakovcic, the existing buildings were adapted, and several other buildings, necessary for the organization of an infectious hospital, were constructed in the early eighties of the 19th century. The terrain and buildings were divided into clean and unclean areas. The main building was adapted to the main facilities for treatment and accommodation, while the smaller building was used for economic purposes. Due to the increase of the capacity at the turn of the century, further adaptations were made, larger wooden barracks and other temporary facilities were also constructed. The terrain of the hospital was linked to two ambitious projects of the hospitals in Rijeka, which were created at the beginning of the 20th century but were not realized.The hospital operated until the twenties of the 20th century when this department together with the City Hospital was moved to the former Naval Academy complex, while the hospital area was given a new purpose in the interwar and postwar periods.

[Notes for the history about the Doctor Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital]. / Notas para la historia del Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Prof. Doctor Lucio Córdova L. Santiago de Chile.

The author presents a historical review about the creation of Doctor Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital. Lucio Cordova MD, Counselor of the Charity Board in 1938, promoted a model pavilion for the hospitalization of patients with communicable diseases. An outbreak of meningococcal meningitis, between 1941 and 1942, hurried the construction of the Infectious Disease Pavilion, which was finished in 1949. The important work of the first chief of the new unit, Roque Kraljevic MD, is highlighted. In 1963, the Infectious Disease Pavilion was transformed into Dr. Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital.

Notas para la historia del Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Prof. Doctor Lucio Córdova L. Santiago de Chile / Notes for the history about the Doctor Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital

Resumen El autor presenta una reseña histórica sobre la creación del Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Dr. Lucio Córdova. El Dr. Lucio Córdova, Consejero de la Honorable Junta de Beneficencia en 1938, impulsó la creación de un pabellón modelo para la hospitalización de enfermos con procesos transmisibles. Un brote de meningitis meningocóccica, entre 1941 y 1942 apresuró la construcción del Pabellón de Enfermedades Infecciosas, que estuvo terminado en 1949. Se destaca la importante labor del primer médico jefe del nuevo Servicio doctor Roque Kraljevic. En 1963, el Pabellón de Enfermedades Infecciosas se transformó en el Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Dr. Lucio Córdova.

The author presents a historical review about the creation of Doctor Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital. Lucio Cordova MD, Counselor of the Charity Board in 1938, promoted a model pavilion for the hospitalization of patients with communicable diseases. An outbreak of meningococcal meningitis, between 1941 and 1942, hurried the construction of the Infectious Disease Pavilion, which was finished in 1949. The important work of the first chief of the new unit, Roque Kraljevic MD, is highlighted. In 1963, the Infectious Disease Pavilion was transformed into Dr. Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital.

[The American Almanac, smallpox in Santiago in 1872 and the isolations hospitals]. / El Almanaque Americano, la viruela en Santiago en 1872 y los lazaretos.

Due to the smallpox epidemic in Santiago in 1872, a Commission or Central Board of isolation hospitals was created. These institutions were endowed with the necessary personnel to receive and assist the sick, highlighting the work of medical students, interns at these hospitals. The total number of patients treated in the infirmaries of Santiago reached 6,782, with a fatality rate of 3,073 (45.3%).

A historical overview of leprosy epidemiology and control activities in Amazonas, Brazil.

Leprosy is an ancient infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae. According to comparative genomics studies, this disease originated in Eastern Africa or the Near East and spread with successive human migrations. The Europeans and North Africans introduced leprosy into West Africa and the Americas within the past 500 years. In Brazil, this disease arrived with the colonizers who disembarked at the first colonies, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador and Recife, at the end of the sixteenth century, after which it was spread to the other states. In 1854, the first leprosy cases were identified in State of Amazonas in the north of Brazil. The increasing number of leprosy cases and the need for treatment and disease control led to the creation of places to isolate patients, known as leprosaria. One of them, Colonia Antônio Aleixo was built in Amazonas in 1956 according to the most advanced recommendations for isolation at that time and was deactivated in 1979. The history of the Alfredo da Matta Center (AMC), which was the first leprosy dispensary created in 1955, parallels the history of leprosy in the state. Over the years, the AMC has become one of the best training centers for leprosy, general dermatology and sexually transmitted diseases in Brazil. In addition to being responsible for leprosy control programs in the state, the AMC has carried out training programs on leprosy diagnosis and treatment for health professionals in Manaus and other municipalities of the state, aiming to increase the coverage of leprosy control activities. This paper provides a historical overview of leprosy in State of Amazonas, which is an endemic state in Brazil.

Tuberculosis: A biosocial study of admissions to a children's sanatorium (1936-1954) in Stannington, Northumberland, England.

This study considers the biosocial profile of children admitted to the Philipson Children's Sanatorium at Stannington, Morpeth, Northumberland, England (1936-1954). The objective was to understand the differential impact of TB on male and female admissions at Stannington, according to a number of variables. A total of 1987 medical files were analysed. More females than males were admitted, peaks of admission at age six and 13 were documented, and the majority of children derived from poor urban areas. Over 60% (1199, 63.5%) of children had pulmonary TB, and 12% (230) had bone or joint involvement. The implementation of chemotherapy (streptomycin) at Stannington (1946), the end of the 2nd World War (1945), and the founding of the National Health Service (1948) did not have any great effect on the biosocial profile of children admitted to the sanatorium and treated (age, sex, origin, type of TB suffered, and socioeconomic status). Reasons for these finding are discussed.

Medical, demographical and social aspects of syphilis: the case of infected sex workers in Greece during Interwar.

The aim of this research is to present syphilis among women described as "indecent" according to the records of the Venereal Diseases Hospital "Andreas Syggros", which is located in Athens, during the period 1931-1935. In impoverished Greece of the Interwar period, factors such as criminal ignorance, or lack of information on sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) along with inadequate health controls of sex workers, resulted in a dramatic spread of syphilis, whereas "Andreas Syggros" hospital accommodated thousands of patients. The inflow of 1.300.000 Greek refugees from Asia Minor, after the Greek defeat by the Turkish army in the war of 1922, resulted in a notable change in the demographics of the country, while the combination of miserable living conditions, unemployment, economic crisis of the Interwar period, political instability and dysfunction of the State led to an increased number of illegal sex workers and syphilis outbreaks. Despite the introduction of an ad hoc Act to control STDs since 1923, the State was unable to limit the transmissibility of syphilis and to control prostitution. Unfortunately, the value of this historical paradigm is borne out by a contemporary example, i.e. the scandal of HIV seropositive sex workers in -beset by economic crisis- Greece in May 2012. It turns out that ignorance, failure to comply with the law, change in the mentality of the citizens in an economically ruined society, and most notably dysfunction of public services during periods of crisis, are all risk factors for the spread of serious infectious diseases.

History of leprosy in Rio de Janeiro.

The record of the first cases of leprosy in Rio de Janeiro dates from the seventeenth century. The first local host of leprosy patients was created from 1741, and the first colonies hospitals were built in the early twentieth century, in order to avoid contagion of the population. The first structures dedicated to research also date from this time: the Leprosy International Institute, the Leprology Institute, and the Leprosy Laboratory of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, where the most prestigious leprologists of Rio de Janeiro worked. Currently, investigations are focused on the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation; additionally, leprosy patients are treated at municipal health centers and state hospitals, and former colony hospitals only accept patients with severe disabilities.

History of leprosy in Rio de Janeiro

The record of the first cases of leprosy in Rio de Janeiro dates from the seventeenth century. The first local host of leprosy patients was created from 1741, and the first colonies hospitals were built in the early twentieth century, in order to avoid contagion of the population. The first structures dedicated to research also date from this time: the Leprosy International Institute, the Leprology Institute, and the Leprosy Laboratory of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, where the most prestigious leprologists of Rio de Janeiro worked. Currently, investigations are focused on the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation; additionally, leprosy patients are treated at municipal health centers and state hospitals, and former colony hospitals only accept patients with severe disabilities.

The Venetian lazarettos of Candia and the Great Plague (1592 - 1595).

The present study highlights the history of lazarettos in Candia (modern Heraklion, Crete, Greece), which was the most important Venetian possession in the Mediterranean at the time, while at the same time it recounts the terrible plague which went down in history as the Great Plague of Candia (1592-1595). The study will also attempt to give a satisfactory answer to the epidemiological questions raised by the worst epidemic that Crete had experienced since the era of the Black Death in the 14th century. The city was about to lose more than a half of its population (51.3%), although it was saved from complete annihilation by the composure, courage and inventiveness of its Venetian commander, Filippo Pasqualigo, whose report to the Venetian Senate makes an invaluable source of information regarding the events of this dramatic period. Candia would also witness the emergence of typical human reactions in cases of epidemics and mass deaths, such as running away along with the feeling of self-preservation, dissolute life and ephemeral pleasures, as well as lawlessness and criminality. The lazaretto proved inefficient in the face of a disaster of such scale, whereas the epidemic functioned as a "crash-test" for the Venetian health system. Eventually, in an era when the microbial nature of the disease was unknown, it seems that it was practically impossible to handle emergency situations of large-scale epidemics successfully, despite strict laws and well-organized precautionary health systems.