Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) Extracts Inhibit the Growth of Fungal Isolates Associated with American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.).

American ginseng, a highly valuable crop in North America, is susceptible to various diseases caused by fungal pathogens, including Alternaria spp., Fusarium spp., and Pestalotiopsis spp. The development of alternative control strategies that use botanicals to control fungal pathogens in American ginseng is desired as it provides multiple benefits. In this study, we isolated and identified three fungal isolates, Alternaria panax, Fusarium sporotrichioides, and Pestalotiopsis nanjingensis, from diseased American ginseng plants. Ethanolic and aqueous extracts from the roots and leaves of goldenseal were prepared, and the major alkaloid constituents were assessed via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Next, the antifungal effects of goldenseal extracts were tested against these three fungal pathogens. Goldenseal root ethanolic extracts exhibited the most potent inhibition against fungal growth, while goldenseal root aqueous extracts and leaf ethanolic extracts showed only moderate inhibition. At 2% (m/v) concentration, goldenseal root ethanolic extracts showed an inhibition rate of 86.0%, 94.9%, and 39.1% against A. panax, F. sporotrichioides, and P. nanjingensis, respectively. The effect of goldenseal root ethanolic extracts on the mycelial morphology of fungal isolates was studied via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The mycelia of the pathogens treated with the goldenseal root ethanolic extract displayed considerable morphological alterations. This study suggests that goldenseal extracts have the potential to be used as a botanical fungicide to control plant fungal diseases caused by A. panax, F. sporotrichioides, or P. nanjingensis.

Neuroactivity screening of botanical extracts using microelectrode array (MEA) recordings.

Toxicity testing of botanicals is challenging because of their chemical complexity and variability. Since botanicals may affect many different modes of action involved in neuronal function, we used microelectrode array (MEA) recordings of primary rat cortical cultures to screen 16 different botanical extracts for their effects on cell viability and neuronal network function in vitro. Our results demonstrate that extract materials (50 µg/mL) derived from goldenseal, milk thistle, tripterygium, and yohimbe decrease mitochondrial activity following 7 days exposure, indicative of cytotoxicity. Importantly, most botanical extracts alter neuronal network function following acute exposure. Extract materials (50 µg/mL) derived from aristolochia, ephedra, green tea, milk thistle, tripterygium, and usnea inhibit neuronal activity. Extracts of kava, kratom and yohimbe are particularly potent and induce a profound inhibition of neuronal activity at the low dose of 5 µg/mL. Extracts of blue cohosh, goldenseal and oleander cause intensification of the bursts. Aconite extract (5 µg/mL) evokes a clear hyperexcitation with a marked increase in the number of spikes and (network) bursts. The distinct activity patterns suggest that botanical extracts have diverse modes of action. Our combined data also highlight the applicability of MEA recordings for hazard identification and potency ranking of botanicals.

Non-targeted chemical analysis of consumer botanical products labeled as blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis), or yohimbe bark (Pausinystalia yohimbe) by NMR and MS.

Consumers have unprecedented access to botanical dietary supplements through online retailers, making it difficult to ensure product quality and authenticity. Therefore, methods to survey and compare chemical compositions across botanical products are needed. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and non-targeted mass spectrometry (MS) were used to chemically analyze commercial products labeled as containing one of three botanicals: blue cohosh, goldenseal, and yohimbe bark. Aqueous and organic phase extracts were prepared and analyzed in tandem with NMR followed by MS. We processed the non-targeted data using multivariate statistics to analyze the compositional similarity across extracts. In each case, there were several product outliers that were identified using principal component analysis (PCA). Evaluation of select known constituents proved useful to contextualize PCA subgroups, which in some cases supported or refuted product authenticity. The NMR and MS data reached similar conclusions independently but were also complementary.

An Integrative Approach to Elucidate Mechanisms Underlying the Pharmacokinetic Goldenseal-Midazolam Interaction: Application of In Vitro Assays and Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models to Understand Clinical Observations.

The natural product goldenseal is a clinical inhibitor of CYP3A activity, as evidenced by a 40%-60% increase in midazolam area under the plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) after coadministration with goldenseal. The predominant goldenseal alkaloids berberine and (-)-ß-hydrastine were previously identified as time-dependent CYP3A inhibitors using human liver microsomes. Whether these alkaloids contribute to the clinical interaction, as well as the primary anatomic site (hepatic vs. intestinal) and mode of CYP3A inhibition (reversible vs. time-dependent), remain uncharacterized. The objective of this study was to mechanistically assess the pharmacokinetic goldenseal-midazolam interaction using an integrated in vitro-in vivo-in silico approach. Using human intestinal microsomes, (-)-ß-hydrastine was a more potent time-dependent inhibitor of midazolam 1'-hydroxylation than berberine (KI and kinact: 8.48 µM and 0.041 minutes-1, respectively, vs. >250 µM and ∼0.06 minutes-1, respectively). Both the AUC and Cmax of midazolam increased by 40%-60% after acute (single 3-g dose) and chronic (1 g thrice daily × 6 days) goldenseal administration to healthy adults. These increases, coupled with a modest or no increase (≤23%) in half-life, suggested that goldenseal primarily inhibited intestinal CYP3A. A physiologically based pharmacokinetic interaction model incorporating berberine and (-)-ß-hydrastine successfully predicted the goldenseal-midazolam interaction to within 20% of that observed after both chronic and acute goldenseal administration. Simulations implicated (-)-ß-hydrastine as the major alkaloid precipitating the interaction, primarily via time-dependent inhibition of intestinal CYP3A, after chronic and acute goldenseal exposure. Results highlight the potential interplay between time-dependent and reversible inhibition of intestinal CYP3A as the mechanism underlying natural product-drug interactions, even after acute exposure to the precipitant. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Natural products can alter the pharmacokinetics of an object drug, potentially resulting in increased off-target effects or decreased efficacy of the drug. The objective of this work was to evaluate fundamental mechanisms underlying the clinically observed goldenseal-midazolam interaction. Results support the use of an integrated approach involving established in vitro assays, clinical evaluation, and physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling to elucidate the complex interplay between multiple phytoconstituents and various pharmacokinetic processes driving a drug interaction.

Goldenseal-Mediated Inhibition of Intestinal Uptake Transporters Decreases Metformin Systemic Exposure in Mice.

Goldenseal is a perennial plant native to eastern North America. A recent clinical study reported goldenseal decreased metformin Cmax and area under the blood concentration versus time curve (AUC) by 27% and 23%, respectively, but half-life and renal clearance were unchanged. These observations suggested goldenseal altered processes involved in metformin absorption. The underlying mechanism(s) remain(s) unknown. One mechanism for the decreased metformin systemic exposure is inhibition by goldenseal of intestinal uptake transporters involved in metformin absorption. Goldenseal extract and three goldenseal alkaloids (berberine, (-)-ß-hydrastine, hydrastinine) were tested as inhibitors of organic cation transporter (OCT) 3, plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT), and thiamine transporter (THTR) 2 using human embryonic kidney 293 cells overexpressing each transporter. The goldenseal extract, normalized to berberine content, was the strongest inhibitor of each transporter (IC50: 4.9, 13.1, and 5.8 µM for OCT3, PMAT, and THTR2, respectively). A pharmacokinetic study in mice compared the effects of berberine, (-)-ß-hydrastine, goldenseal extract, and imatinib (OCT inhibitor) on orally administered metformin. Goldenseal extract and imatinib significantly decreased metformin Cmax by 31% and 25%, respectively, and had no effect on half-life. Berberine and (-)-ß-hydrastine had no effect on metformin pharmacokinetics, indicating neither alkaloid alone precipitated the interaction in vivo. A follow-up murine study involving intravenous metformin and oral inhibitors examined the contributions of basolateral enteric/hepatic uptake transporters to the goldenseal-metformin interaction. Goldenseal extract and imatinib had no effect on metformin AUC and half-life, suggesting lack of inhibition of basolateral enteric/hepatic uptake transporters. Results may have implications for patients taking goldenseal with drugs that are substrates for OCT3 and THTR2. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Goldenseal is used to self-treat respiratory infections and digestive disorders. We investigated potential mechanisms for the clinical pharmacokinetic interaction observed between goldenseal and metformin, specifically inhibition by goldenseal of intestinal uptake transporters (OCT3, PMAT, THTR2) involved in metformin absorption. Goldenseal extract inhibited all three transporters in vitro and decreased metformin systemic exposure in mice. These data may have broader implications for patients co-consuming goldenseal with other drugs that are substrates for these transporters.

In Silico Analysis of the Effect of Hydrastis canadensis on Controlling Breast Cancer.

Background and Objectives: Breast cancer is a significant type of cancer among women worldwide. Studies have reported the anti-carcinogenic activity of Hydrastis Canadensis (Goldenseal) in cancer cell lines. Hydrastis Canadensis could help eliminate toxic substances due to its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and other properties. The design phase includes the identification of potential and effective molecules through modern computational techniques. Objective: This work aims to study Hydrastis Canadensis's effect in controlling hormone-independent breast cancer through in-silico analysis. Materials and Methods: The preliminary screening of reported phytochemicals includes biomolecular networking. Identifying functionally relevant phytochemicals and the respective target mutations/genes leads to selecting 3D proteins of the desired mutations being considered the target. Interaction studies have been conducted using docking. The kinetic and thermodynamic stability of complexes was studied through molecular dynamic simulation and MM-PBSA/GBSA analysis. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic features have been predicted. The mechanism-wise screening, functional enrichment, and interactional studies suggest that canadaline and Riboflavin effectively interact with the target proteins. Results: Hydrastis Canadensis has been identified as the effective formulation containing all these constituents. The phytoconstituents; Riboflavin and Canadensis showed good interaction with the targets of hormone-independent breast cancer. The complexes were found to be kinetically and thermodynamically stable. Conclusions: Hydrastis Canadensis has been identified as effective in controlling 'hormone-independent or basal-like breast cancer' followed by 'hormone-dependent breast cancer: Luminal A' and Luminal B.

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model predictions of natural product-drug interactions between goldenseal, berberine, imatinib and bosutinib.

PURPOSE: This study implements a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling approach to predict the effect of hydrastine and berberine, two major alkaloids present in goldenseal extract, on pharmacokinetics of imatinib and bosutinib. METHODS: PBPK models of hydrastine and berberine were developed in the Simcyp Simulator (version 17), integrating prior in vitro knowledge and published clinical pharmacokinetic data. The models account for reversible and irreversible (mechanism-based) inhibition of CYP3A enzymes as well as inhibition of the P-glycoprotein transporter. Inhibitory potencies of hydrastine and berberine on imatinib and bosutinib were estimated based on in vitro inhibition of metabolite formation. RESULTS: The PBPK models provided reliable estimates on the magnitude of interactions due to co-administration of goldenseal extract or high-dose berberine on substrates of CYP3A enzymes (midazolam, indinavir and cyclosporine) and P-glycoprotein (digoxin). PBPK simulations predicted a moderate twofold increase (5th to 95th percentiles of prediction of 1.4-3.1) in systemic exposure (AUC) of bosutinib when co-administered with clinically relevant doses of goldenseal extract. A high dose of berberine (300 mg thrice daily) was also expected to affect bosutinib exposure, albeit to a lesser extent than that predicted with goldenseal (AUC ratio of 1.3, 5th to 95th percentile: 1.1-1.6). Conversely, the corresponding effects on imatinib exposure are unlikely to be of clinical importance (predicted AUC ratios of 1.0-1.2). CONCLUSION: PBPK model-based predictions highlighted potential clinically significant interactions between goldenseal extract and bosutinib, but not imatinib. Dose adjustment may need to be considered if co-administration is desirable. These findings should be confirmed with optimally designed controlled drug interaction studies.

Plant isoquinoline alkaloids: Advances in the chemistry and biology of berberine.

Alkaloids are one of the most important classes of plant bioactives. Among these isoquinoline alkaloids possess varied structures and exhibit numerous biological activities. Basically these are biosynthetically produced via phenylpropanoid pathway. However, occasionally some mixed pathways may also occur to provide structural divergence. Among the various biological activities anticancer, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, and antimicrobial are important. A few notable bioactive isoquinoline alkaloids are antidiabetic berberine, anti-tussive codeine, analgesic morphine, and muscle relaxant papaverine etc. Berberine is one of the most discussed bioactives from this class possessing broad-spectrum pharmacological activities. Present review aims at recent updates of isoquinoline alkaloids with major emphasis on berberine, its detailed chemistry, important biological activities, structure activity relationship and implementation in future research.

Usefulness of Hydrastis for the prevention of encrustation of long-term indwelling catheters in persons with neurogenic bladder dysfunction: a case series.

INTRODUCTION: Virtually every person with a spinal cord injury (SCI) suffers from a neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (NLUTD). In the long term, about 15% of persons with SCI depend on indwelling (suprapubic or transurethral) catheters for bladder management. About 50% of these patients suffer from catheter encrustation and blockage, which may become a vital threat for persons with SCI, as it can lead to septicemia or autonomic dysreflexia. Until today, no prophylaxis of catheter encrustations with an evidence-based proof of efficacy exists. CASE PRESENTATION: The homeopathic remedy Hydrastis, made from the goldenseal root, is used for the treatment of thick, mucous urine sediment. In four patients with tetraplegia (three female, one male) who managed NLUTD by suprapubic catheters, recurrent encrustations and catheter blockage occurred despite irrigation and medical treatment. Surgical urinary diversion was envisioned. Applying Hydrastis C30 once weekly as a long-term medication, in three of the four patients, catheter obstructions ceased, with a follow-up for at least 1 year. One patient is awaiting ileal conduit surgery. DISCUSSION: According to the results of our case series, the application of Hydrastis seems to be beneficial in the prevention of encrustations of indwelling catheters in patients with SCI. As the treatment was effective and well tolerated, the problem is frequent, and effective solutions are scarce, a prospective trial seems justified.

Hierarchical Action of Mulberry miR156 in the Vegetative Phase Transition.

The vegetative phase transition is a prerequisite for flowering in angiosperm plants. Mulberry miR156 has been confirmed to be a crucial factor in the vegetative phase transition in Arabidopsis thaliana. The over-expression of miR156 in transgenic Populus × canadensis dramatically prolongs the juvenile phase. Here, we find that the expression of mno-miR156 decreases with age in all tissues in mulberry, which led us to study the hierarchical action of miR156 in mulberry. Utilizing degradome sequencing and dual-luciferase reporter assays, nine MnSPLs were shown to be directly regulated by miR156. The results of yeast one-hybrid and dual-luciferase reporter assays also revealed that six MnSPLs could recognize the promoter sequences of mno-miR172 and activate its expression. Our results demonstrate that mno-miR156 performs its role by repressing MnSPL/mno-miR172 pathway expression in mulberry. This work uncovered a miR156/SPLs/miR172 regulation pathway in the development of mulberry and fills a gap in our knowledge about the molecular mechanism of vegetative phase transition in perennial woody plants.

Effects of Hydrastis Canadensis, Commiphora Habessinica, Phytolacca Americana, and Echinacea Purpurea on Bacterial Growth.

CONTEXT: With the rise of antibiotic resistance, new strategies are needed to treat minor bacterial infections so that conventional antibiotics may be reserved for more serious conditions. One herbal formula, known as the HMPE formula, is often prescribed for minor infections. It includes Hydrastis canadensis (H. canadensis), Commiphora habessinica (C. habessinica), Phytolacca americana (P. americana), and Echinacea purpurea (E. purpurea). These herbs offer promise as treatments that may inhibit bacterial growth and stimulate the immune system. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the antibacterial effects of the HMPE formula and its constituent herbs against two organisms, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Escherichia coli. DESIGN: The research team performed an in-vitro study. SETTING: The study occurred at the Helfgott Research Institute at the National University of Natural Medicine in Portland, OR, USA. INTERVENTION: The study tested HMPE and each of its ingredients alone for antibacterial properties. OUTCOME MEASURES: The outcome measure was a disc diffusion assay. Sterile paper discs were impregnated with 15 µl of E. purpurea, H. canadensis, C. habessinica , or P. americana as herbal tinctures; with the complete HMPE formula; or with 65% ethanol as the negative control, and dried at room temperature for 40 minutes. Commercially prepared 10 µg ampicillin discs were used as a positive control. RESULTS: H. Canadensis and, to a lesser extent, the complete HMPE formula significantly inhibited the growth of the gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus epidermidis, but not the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli. C. habessinica, P. americana, and E. purpurea alone did not inhibit growth of either bacterial strain. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrated that H. canadensis had antibacterial activity against S. epidermidis, but the HMPE formula was not active against S. epidermidis, when a zone of inhibition threshold of 12 millimeters (mm) was used to determine antibiotic activity. Because the HMPE formula was shown to be less effective than H. canadensis alone, the formula might benefit from an increased percentage of H. canadensis.

Assessing Transporter-Mediated Natural Product-Drug Interactions Via In vitro-In Vivo Extrapolation: Clinical Evaluation With a Probe Cocktail.

The botanical natural product goldenseal can precipitate clinical drug interactions by inhibiting cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A and CYP2D6. Besides P-glycoprotein, effects of goldenseal on other clinically relevant transporters remain unknown. Established transporter-expressing cell systems were used to determine the inhibitory effects of a goldenseal extract, standardized to the major alkaloid berberine, on transporter activity. Using recommended basic models, the extract was predicted to inhibit the efflux transporter BCRP and uptake transporters OATP1B1/3. Using a cocktail approach, effects of the goldenseal product on BCRP, OATP1B1/3, OATs, OCTs, MATEs, and CYP3A were next evaluated in 16 healthy volunteers. As expected, goldenseal increased the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC0-inf ) of midazolam (CYP3A; positive control), with a geometric mean ratio (GMR) (90% confidence interval (CI)) of 1.43 (1.35-1.53). However, goldenseal had no effects on the pharmacokinetics of rosuvastatin (BCRP and OATP1B1/3) and furosemide (OAT1/3); decreased metformin (OCT1/2, MATE1/2-K) AUC0-inf (GMR, 0.77 (0.71-0.83)); and had no effect on metformin half-life and renal clearance. Results indicated that goldenseal altered intestinal permeability, transport, and/or other processes involved in metformin absorption, which may have unfavorable effects on glucose control. Inconsistencies between model predictions and pharmacokinetic outcomes prompt further refinement of current basic models to include differential transporter expression in relevant organs and intestinal degradation/metabolism of the precipitant(s). Such refinement should improve in vitro-in vivo prediction accuracy, contributing to a standard approach for studying transporter-mediated natural product-drug interactions.

Chemical Evaluation of the Effects of Storage Conditions on the Botanical Goldenseal using Marker-based and Metabolomics Approaches.

Hydrastis canadensis, commonly known as goldenseal, is a botanical native to the southeastern United States that has been used for the treatment of infection. The activity of goldenseal is often attributed to the presence of alkaloids (cyclic, nitrogen-containing compounds) present within its roots. Chemical components of botanical supplements like goldenseal may face degradation if not stored properly. The purpose of the research was to analyze the stability of known and unknown metabolites of H. canadensis during exposure to different storage conditions using mass spectrometry. Three abundant metabolites of H. canadensis, berberine, canadine, and hydrastine, were chosen for targeted analysis, and the stability of unknown metabolites was evaluated using untargeted metabolomics. The analysis and evaluation of H. canadensis samples were performed utilizing LC-MS and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The research project focused on identifying the chemical changes in the metabolite content of H. canadensis under different temperature conditions (40°C ± 5°C, 20°C ± 5°C , and 4°C ± 5°C), different light:dark (hr:hr) cycles (16:8, 12:12, and 0:24), and different sample conditions (powdered roots versus whole roots) over a six month period. The results of this 6-month study revealed that the storage conditions evaluated had no significant effects on the chemical composition of H. canadensis roots. Hence, as long as H. canadensis roots are stored within the storage conditions tested in the study, no significant changes in chemical compositions of metabolites are expected.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) and its active constituents: A critical review of their efficacy and toxicological issues.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) is a medicinal plant widely used in various traditional systems of medicine and as a food supplement. It has been traditionally used by Native Americans as a coloring agent and as medicinal remedy for common diseases and conditions like wounds, digestive disorders, ulcers, skin and eye ailments, and cancer. Over the years, goldenseal has become a popular food supplement in the USA and other regions. The rhizome of this plant has been used for the treatment of a variety of diseases including, gastrointestinal disorders, ulcers, muscular debility, nervous prostration, constipation, skin and eye infections, cancer, among others. Berberine is one of the most bioactive alkaloid that has been identified in different parts of goldenseal. The goldenseal extract containing berberine showed numerous therapeutic effects such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, neuroprotective (anti-Alzheimer's disease), cardioprotective, and gastrointestinal protective. Various research finding suggest the health promoting effects of goldenseal components and their extracts. However, few studies have also suggested the possible neurotoxic, hepatotoxic and phototoxic activities of goldenseal extract and its alkaloids. Thus, large randomized, double-blind clinical studies need to be conducted on goldenseal supplements and their main alkaloids to provide more evidence on the mechanisms responsible for the pharmaceutical activity, clinical efficacy and safety of these products. Thus, it is very important to review the scientific information about goldenseal to understand about the current scenario.

In Vitro Assessment of Homeopathic Potencies of Hydrastis canadensis on Hormone-Dependent and Independent Breast Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women. Conventional treatment such as chemotherapy, hormonal therapy and radiotherapy has decreased the mortality rate among cancer patients but has also revealed long-term side effects. Drug resistance and toxicity to normal cells compound the problems associated with the use of modern medicines. Hence, complementary or alternative treatment options are being explored. The current study, using different homeopathic potencies of Hydrastis canadensis, was conducted to distinguish between any effects they might have on hormone-dependent and independent breast cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The cytotoxic effect of homeopathic medicine Hydrastis on hormone-dependent (MCF 7) and hormone-independent (MDA-MB-468) breast cancer cells was assessed using viability and colony-forming assays after 48 or 72 hours of treatment. Flow cytometry-based Annexin V-PI (propidium iodide), caspase 3 and cell cycle analysis was performed following treatment of cells with mother tincture or various potencies of Hydrastis (1C, 2C, 30C, 200C). RESULTS: Different potencies of Hydrastis displayed selective cytotoxic effects against MCF 7 cells, but only marginal effects against MDA-MB-468. The maximum cytotoxicity was established in the case of 1C following 72 hours of treatment. Treatment of breast cancer cells revealed an increase in the G0/G1 cell population, along with an increase in the caspase 3 levels and induction of apoptosis. CONCLUSION: Hydrastis may have a selective cytotoxic effect against hormone-dependent breast cancer MCF 7 cells, leading to cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase, which could be the plausible reason for the induction of apoptosis. The results need to be validated in vivo.

Modulation of Major Human Liver Microsomal Cytochromes P450 by Component Alkaloids of Goldenseal: Time-Dependent Inhibition and Allosteric Effects.

Botanical and other natural products (NPs) are often coconsumed with prescription medications, presenting a risk for cytochrome P450 (P450)-mediated NP-drug interactions. The NP goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) has exhibited antimicrobial activities in vitro attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids contained in the plant, primarily berberine, (-)-ß-hydrastine, and to a lesser extent, hydrastinine. These alkaloids contain methylenedioxyphenyl rings, structural alerts with potential to inactivate P450s through formation of metabolic intermediate complexes. Time-dependent inhibition experiments were conducted to evaluate their ability to inhibit major P450 activities in human liver microsomes by using a cocktail of isozyme-specific substrate probes. Berberine inhibited CYP2D6 (dextromethorphan O-demethylation; K I = 2.7 µM, kinact = 0.065 minute-1) and CYP3A4/5 (midazolam 1'-hydroxylation; K I = 14.8 µM, kinact = 0.019 minute-1); (-)-ß-hydrastine inhibited CYP2C9 (diclofenac 4'-hydroxylation; K I = 49 µM, kinact = 0.036 minute-1), CYP2D6 (K I > 250 µM, kinact > 0.06 minute-1), and CYP3A4/5 (K I = 28 µM, kinact = 0.056 minute-1); and hydrastinine inhibited CYP2D6 (K I = 37 µM, kinact = 0.049 minute-1) activity. Berberine additionally exhibited allosteric effects on midazolam hydroxylation, showing both positive and negative heterotropic cooperativity. Experiments with recombinant isozymes showed that berberine activated midazolam 1'-hydroxylation by CYP3A5, lowering K m(app), but showed mixed inhibition and negative cooperativity toward this reaction when catalyzed by CYP3A4. Berberine inactivated CYP3A4 at a much faster rate than CYP3A5 and was a noncompetitive inhibitor of midazolam 4-hydroxylation by CYP3A4 but a strong mixed inhibitor of the CYP3A5 catalyzed reaction. These complex kinetics should be considered when extrapolating the risk for NP-drug interactions involving goldenseal. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Robust kinetic parameters were determined for the reversible and time-dependent inhibition of CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4/5 activities in human liver microsomes by major component isoquinoline alkaloids contained in the botanical natural product goldenseal. The alkaloid berberine also exhibited opposing, isozyme-specific allosteric effects on midazolam hydroxylation mediated by recombinant CYP3A4 (inhibition) and CYP3A5 (activation). These data will inform the development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model that can be used to predict potential clinically relevant goldenseal-drug interactions.

Identification of adulteration in botanical samples with untargeted metabolomics.

Adulteration remains an issue in the dietary supplement industry, including botanical supplements. While it is common to employ a targeted analysis to detect known adulterants, this is difficult when little is known about the sample set. With this study, untargeted metabolomics using liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (LC-UV) or high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was employed to detect adulteration in botanical dietary supplements. A training set was prepared by combining Hydrastis canadensis L. with a known adulterant, Coptis chinensis Franch., in ratios ranging from 5 to 95% adulteration. The metabolomics datasets were analyzed using both unsupervised (principal component analysis and composite score) and supervised (SIMCA) techniques. Palmatine, a known H. canadensis metabolite, was quantified as a targeted analysis comparison. While the targeted analysis was the most sensitive method tested in detecting adulteration, statistical analyses of the untargeted metabolomics datasets detected adulteration of the goldenseal samples, with SIMCA providing the greatest discriminating potential. Graphical abstract.

Composite score analysis for unsupervised comparison and network visualization of metabolomics data.

Metabolomics-based approaches are becoming increasingly popular to interrogate the chemical basis for phenotypic differences in biological systems. Successful metabolomics studies employ multivariate data analysis to compare large and highly complex datasets. A primary tool for unsupervised statistical analyses, principal component analysis (PCA), relies on the selection of a subsection of a maximum of three components from a larger model to visually represent similarity. The use of only three principal components limits the comprehensiveness of the model and can mask discrimination between samples. We have developed a new statistical metric, the composite score (CS), as a univariate statistic that incorporates multiple principal components to calculate a correlation matrix that enables quantitative comparisons of sample similarity between samples within one dataset based upon measured metabolome profiles. Composite score values were tabulated using profiles of complex extracts of dietary supplements from the plant Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal) as a case study. Several outliers were unambiguously identified, and a PCA composite score network was developed to provide a graphical representation of the composite score matrix. Comparison with visualization using PCA score plots or dendrograms from hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) demonstrates the utility of the composite score to as a tool for metabolomics studies that seek to quantify similarity among samples. An R-script for the calculation of composite score has been made available.

Botanical metabolite ions extraction from full electrospray ionization mass spectrometry using high-dimensional penalized regression.

INTRODUCTION: Mass spectrometric data analysis of complex biological mixtures can be a challenge due to its vast datasets. There is lack of data treatment pipelines to analyze chemical signals versus noise. These tasks, so far, have been up to the discretion of the analysts. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this work is to demonstrate an analytical workflow that would enhance the confidence in metabolomics before answering biological questions by serial dilution of botanical complex mixture and high-dimensional data analysis. Furthermore, we would like to provide an alternative approach to a univariate p-value cutoff from t-test for blank subtraction procedure between negative control and biological samples. METHODS: A serial dilution of complex mixture analysis under electrospray ionization was proposed to study firsthand chemical complexity of metabolomics. Advanced statistical models using high-dimensional penalized regression were employed to study both the concentration and ion intensity relationship and the ion-ion relationship per second of retention time sub dataset. The multivariate analysis was carried out with a tool built in-house, so called metabolite ions extraction and visualization, which was implemented in R environment. RESULTS: A test case of the medicinal plant goldenseal (Hydrastis canandensis L.), showed an increase in metabolome coverage of features deemed as "important" by a multivariate analysis compared to features deemed as "significant" by a univariate t-test. For an illustration, the data analysis workflow suggested an unexpected putative compound, 20-hydroxyecdysone. This suggestion was confirmed with MS/MS acquisition and literature search. CONCLUSION: The multivariate analytical workflow selects "true" metabolite ions signals and provides an alternative approach to a univariate p-value cutoff from t-test, thus enhancing the data analysis process of metabolomics.