Solidification and utilization of municipal solid waste incineration ashes: Advancements in alkali-activated materials and stabilization techniques, a review.

Researchers are actively investigating methodologies for the detoxification and utilization of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Bottom Ash (MSWIBA) and Fly Ash (MSWIFA), given their potential as alkali-activated materials (AAMs) with low energy consumption. Recent studies highlight that AAMs from MSWIFA and MSWIBA demonstrate significant durability in both acidic and alkaline environments. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the processes for producing MSWIFA and MSWIBA, evaluating innovative engineering stabilization techniques such as graphene nano-platelets and lightweight artificial cold-bonded aggregates, along with their respective advantages and limitations. Additionally, this review meticulously incorporates relevant reactions. Recommendations are also presented to guide future research endeavors aimed at refining these methodologies.

Co-melting mechanisms for municipal solid waste incineration fly ash with fine slag from coal gasification and coal gangue.

Vitrification is a promising treatment for municipal solid waste incineration fly ash (MSWI-FA); however, high energy consumption due to the high MSWI-FA fusion temperature limits the development and application of this technique. In this study, fine slag ash (FSA) derived from coal gasification and coal gangue ash (CGA) were mixed with MSWI-FA to reduce the ash fusion temperature. The transformation of minerals in ash during thermal treatment was examined via X-ray diffraction and thermodynamic equilibrium calculations. The ash flow behaviour was observed using a thermal platform microscope, and the silicate structure was quantified using Raman spectra. The co-melting mechanisms for the mixed ash were systematically investigated. Results indicate that the flow temperature (FT) of the mixed ash exhibited an initial decrease and subsequent increase as a function of the addition ratio of FSA or CGA. Lowest ash FT of 1215 °C and 1223 °C were recorded for addition of 50% FSA and 50% CGA, respectively; further, these temperatures were lowered by > 285 °C and >277 °C respectively, relative to FT of the MSWI-FA. The transformation of minerals and silicate structure during mixed ash heating was responsible for the variation in the ash fusion temperature. CaO in MSWI-FA tended to react with mullite, quartz and haematite in FSA and CGA, forming minerals such as anorthite, gehlenite, and andradite with relatively low melting points. The addition of FSA or CGA caused changes in the silicate network structure of the mixed ash. In particular, 50% FSA incorporation caused the transformation of Q4 and Q3 to Q2, whereas 50% CGA introduction resulted in the conversion of Q4 and Q2 into Q3 and Q1 + Q0, respectively. The silicate network depolymerised, causing reduction in the ash fusion temperature and increasing the melting rate.

The reduction of the carbon footprint of municipal solid waste management via source classification and supporting strategies: An analysis for the megacity of Shenzhen.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) management is a critical concern in megacities that depend heavily on external material and energy inputs but lack space for waste disposal. MSW treatment is a significant contributor to carbon emissions. The implementation of source classification improved the overall MSW management system and enhanced resource recovery from MSW. However, the precise contribution of source classification to carbon emissions reduction remains unclear. This study aimed to analyze the carbon emissions evolution in the MSW management of Shenzhen, a prototypical megacity in China, using data from 2006 to 2020 and employing carbon footprint assessment methodologies. The results demonstrated that source classification reduced the carbon emissions from 0.19-0.25 to 0.14-0.18 t CO2-eq/t MSW when considering the contribution of the urban environmental sanitation management department. The entire MSW management system becomes a carbon sink when considering recyclables collected by commercial enterprises. Although the source classification complicated the collection and transportation of MSW, the carbon offset effect of recycling food waste and recyclables was more significant than that of carbon emissions from collection and transport. Moreover, the landfill gas recovery rate critically influenced the carbon emissions of landfill-based MSW management systems. In contrast, the recovery of plastics was crucial for determining carbon emissions from incineration-based MSW management systems.

Quantification and forecast of GHG emissions from municipal solid wastes by multi-expression programming method.

The municipal solid waste (MSW) management is significantly contributing to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Analyzing the emission pattern of GHGs from MSW is essential for formulating appropriate carbon mitigation policies. Based on IPCC Models, GHG emissions from MSW were calculated in Chinese provinces from 2004 to 2021 by landfilling and incineration operations, separately. Landfilling and incineration generated approximately 1271 MtCO2-eq and 198 MtCO2-eq from 2004 to 2021, respectively. GHG emissions from landfilling increased from 2004 to 2020 and declined in 2021, while GHG emissions from incineration demonstrated an increasing trend with three distinct growth stages. A panel regression model was then employed to identify the key factors influencing GHG emissions. GDP and population are positively related to GHG emissions from landfills, while PCCE is negatively related to GHG emissions from landfills. GDP and PCCE have a positive impact on GHG emissions from incineration, while population showed no significant impact. Multi-expression programming was used to develop an explicit model, forecasting GHG emissions from MSW by 2030. From 2022 to 2024, GHG emissions from landfills will quickly decrease, while GHG emissions from incineration will rapidly increase. Subsequently, the GHG emission rate of incineration will slow down, and GHGs from landfilling will slowly decrease due to no MSW for landfill disposal. The methods and results provide insightful information for policy-makers and waste management sector.

Reuse potential of municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash as secondary aggregate: Material characteristics, persistent organic pollutant content and effects of pH and selected environmental lixiviants on leaching behaviour.

Increasing municipal solid waste (MSW) production poses challenges for sustainable urban development. Modern energy-from-waste (EfW) facilities incinerate MSW, reducing mass and recovering energy. In the UK, MSW incineration bottom ash (MSW IBA) is primarily reused in civil engineering applications. This study characterizes UK-produced MSW IBA, examining its pH-dependent leaching behaviour and response to environmental lixiviants. Results show predominant components include a melt phase, primary glass and fine ash aggregations, and a chemical composition dominated by SiO2 (30-50 %), CaO (∼15 %), Fe2O3 (∼10 %), and Al2O3 (∼8%). X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) analysis shows that Zn and Cu are most likely oxygen-bound (adsorbed to oxy-hydroxides and as oxides) with some sulphur bound. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) are well below regulatory limits, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were undetectable. Leaching tests indicate trace elements mobilize at pHs ≤ 6. With a natural pH of 11.3 and high buffering capacity, significant acid inputs to the MSW IBA are required to reach this pH, which are improbable in the environment. Wood chip additions increase leachate's dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and reduce pH, but had minimal impact on metal-leaching behaviour. Synthetic plant exudate solutions minimally affect metal leaching at realistic concentrations, only enhancing leaching at ≥ 1500 mg l-1 DOC. This work supports MSW IBA's low-risk in specified civil engineering applications.

Comparison and mechanism analysis of MgO, CaO, and Portland cement for immobilization of heavy metals in MSWI fly ash.

The significant production of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash (MSWI FA) underscores the importance of developing efficient solidification materials. This study employed MgO and CaO for immobilizing MSWI FA (with a 70% fly ash incorporation), and the immobilization effect was compared with that of Portland cement (PC). Experimental findings revealed that MgO exhibited the most effective stabilization for heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn) compared to CaO and PC. XRD, FTIR, TG, and SEM analysis indicated that the principal hydration products in MSWI FA binders solidified with MgO, CaO, and PC were Mg(OH)2, CaCO3, and C-S-H gel, respectively. Mg(OH)2 efficiently immobilized heavy metals through chemical complexation and surface adsorption mechanisms. The MgO-treated MSWI FA demonstrated the highest residual fractions and the lowest easily leachable fractions. Moreover, the leaching characteristics of heavy metals were significantly influenced by the pH level, so MgO-treated MSWI FA with a leachate pH of 9.18 achieved the precipitation and stabilization of most heavy metals. In summary, this study provided an effective material selection for MSWI FA immobilization and presented a novel strategy for MSWI FA management.

Serum metabolism distribution in individuals exposed to dioxins: A case study of residents near the municipal solid waste incinerators in China.

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) have attracted considerable attention owing to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and high toxicity. This study aimed to investigate changes in serum metabolites following exposure to PCDD/Fs and to reveal a novel pathogenesis of PCDD/Fs. Serum samples were collected from 75 residents living near a municipal solid waste incinerator in China to analyse the relationship between PCDD/Fs and serum metabolic components. The serum level in the low-exposure group [19.07 (13.44-23.89) pg-TEQ/L] was significantly lower than that in the high-exposure group [115.60 (52.28-592.65) pg-TEQ/L]. Non-targeted metabolomic studies based on liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry have been applied to the metabolomic analysis of serum. Thirty-seven metabolites with significant differences among the different groups were identified as biomarkers. Pathway analysis revealed that high dioxin exposure perturbed various biological processes, including glycerol phospholipid metabolism and the interconversion of pentose and glucuronate. The results of a population health survey showed that the serum dioxin concentration in patients with diabetes was significantly higher than that in the control population. These findings suggest that dioxin exposure is associated with several potential adverse health risks, including inflammation, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, through metabolic changes.

Recognition of screening out hierarchical toxic contaminants tuned by quantified pseudo-components from complex engineering co-combustion.

Co-combustion of industrial and municipal solid wastes has emerged as the most promising disposal technology, yet its effect on unknown contaminants generation remains rarely revealed due to waste complexity. Hence, six batches of large-scale engineering experiments were designed in an incinerator of 650 t/d, which overcame the inauthenticity and deviation of laboratory tests. 953-1772 non-targeted compounds were screened in fly ash. Targeting the impact of co-combustion, a pseudo-component matrix model was innovatively integrated to quantitatively extract nine components from complex wastes grouped into biomass and plastic. Thus, the influence was evaluated across eight dimensions, covering molecular characteristics and toxicity. The effect of co-combustion with biomass pseudo-components was insignificant. However, co-combustion with high ratios of plastic pseudo-components induced higher potential risks, significantly promoting the formation of unsaturated hydrocarbons, highly unsaturated compounds (DBE≥15), and cyclic compounds by 19 %- 49 %, 17 %- 31 %, and 7 %- 27 %, respectively. Especially, blending with high ratios of PET plastic pseudo-components produced more species of contaminants. Unique 2 Level I toxicants, bromomethyl benzene and benzofuran-2-carbaldehyde, as well as 4 Level II toxicants, were locked, receiving no concern in previous combustion. The results highlighted risks during high proportion plastics co-combustion, which can help pollution reduction by tuning source wastes to enable healthy co-combustion.

Mineral transformation and solidification of heavy metals during co-melting of MSWI fly ash with coal fly ash.

Melting is an efficient method to turn municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash (FA) into non-hazardous material. Coal fly ash (CFA) was selected as the silica-alumina source to carry out co-melting research with MSWI FA in this work. The effects of the temperature and the CFA content on mineral transformation and the migration characteristics of heavy metals were analyzed. The results showed that the mixtures of MSWI FA and CFA reacted at high temperatures to mainly generate Ca2Al2SiO7, Ca2SiO4, and CaAl2Si2O8 primarily and then melted and formed the amorphous-phase vitreous body when the CFA content was more than 40% and the temperature was higher than 1300 °C. During the melting process, Cd and Pb were almost volatilized, while Cr, Mn, and Ni were almost retained. Besides, the volatilization rates of Cu and Zn fluctuated with the temperature and the CFA content. Suitable treatment temperature and CFA content were conducive to the transformation of the heavy metals in the FA into stable forms, and the melting products were no longer hazardous wastes because the vitreous body could effectively encapsulate heavy metals. This study aims to help reuse the FA and CFA collaboratively and be more environmentally friendly.

Impacts of advanced metals recovery on municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash: aggregate characteristics and performance in portland limestone cement concrete.

The optimization of alternative materials in concrete production continues to garner considerable attention in order to meet sustainability goals and supplement natural materials. Portland limestone cement (PLC) and municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) bottom ash (BA) have been proposed separately as green cement and coarse aggregate supplement in low-strength concrete production, creating sustainable products and alternative disposal scenario for a waste material. This study discusses the impact of advanced ash processing techniques on aggregates and presents the performance of concrete incorporating both of these products with PLC for the first time. Two sources of MSWI BA were investigated, one as-produced (TMR) and one processed with novel advanced metals recovery (AMR). The AMR process reduced total Al content in ash compared to TMR (20,500 vs 17,000 mg/kg), though not aluminum oxide content, as the AMR process targets metallic aluminum. A composition study on both aggregates supports a reduction in ferrous and non-ferrous metals following the AMR process. All control and test mixes met 28-day compressive strength requirements (17 Mpa). Both AMR and TMR MSWI BA-amended concretes yielded compressive strengths below control specimens (no ash) ranging from 17 to 23 MPa, with little to no difference observed dependent on MSWI BA processing. The life-cycle discussion supports benefits deriving from supplementing naturally mined materials and recovering ferrous and nonferrous metals with the AMR process.

Characteristics of pollutant generation from 3D-printed photocured waste combustion.

With the rapid advancement of photopolymerization-based 3D printing technology, the volume of PCW has experienced a sharp increase. The potential environmental ramifications of PCW disposal demand careful consideration, especially given its current practice of being incineration alongside MSW. In this study, the TG-MS/FTIR system was carried out to probe the thermogravimetric characteristics and volatile byproducts during combustion. Various product compositions resulting from different mixing ratios of PCW incineration with MSW were investigated. It was observed that fluorene (C13H10) and triphenylene (C18H12) produced by PCW combustion 0.52 mg/g and 0.43 mg/g respectively, which are twice as abundant as those generated from normal plastic. When PCW incineration along with MSW, compounds such as naphthalene (C10H8), cyclohexane (C6H12), and heptane (C7H16) were generated in concentrations of 1.25 mg/g, 1.05 mg/g, and 0.95 mg/g respectively, which are at least twice as much as with MSW incineration alone. The incineration of PCW with rubber and textiles resulted in the production of 2.34 mg/g to 3.76 mg/g more PAHs compared to PCW combustion alone. The incineration of PCW with paper resulted in the production of 3.12 mg/g to 5.15 mg/g more heptane, nonane, cyclohexane, pyrene, and anthracene than PCW combustion alone. Incineration of PCW with wood proved to be the cleanest method, with product contents primarily below 0.10 mg/g. When incinerated with food residues or normal plastic, most of the product content remained below 0.05 mg/g. Considering the environmental pollution resulting from PCW combustion, the disposal of PCW warrants careful consideration and management.

Regulatory compliance of PCDD/F emissions by a municipal solid waste incinerator. A case study in Sant Adrià de Besòs, Catalonia, Spain.

Despite incineration is an important emission source of toxic pollutants, such as heavy metals and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), it is still one of the most widely used methods for the management of municipal solid waste. The current paper summarizes the results of a 20-year follow-up study of the emissions of PCDD/Fs by a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) in Sant Adrià de Besòs (Catalonia, Spain). Samples of ambient air, soils and herbage were periodically collected near the facility and the content of PCDD/Fs was analyzed. In the last (2017) survey, mean levels in soil were 3.60 ng WHO-TEQ/kg (range: 0.40-10.6), being considerably higher than the mean concentrations of PCDD/Fs in soil samples collected near other MSWIs in Catalonia. Moreover, air PCDD/F concentrations were even higher than those found in a previous (2014) survey, as they increased from 0.026 to 0.044 pg WHO-TEQ/m3. Ultimately, the PCDD/F exposure would be associated to a cancer risk (2.5 × 10-6) for the population living in the surrounding area. Globally, this information indicates that the MSWI of Sant Adrià de Besòs could have had a negative impact on the environment and potentially on public health, being an example of a possible inappropriate management for years. The application of Best Available Techniques to minimize the emission of PCDD/Fs and other chemicals is critical.

Multi-criteria sustainability assessment of solid waste management in Jordan.

This study comprehensively evaluates Jordan's municipal solid waste (MSW) management sector from 2022 to 2030, in alignment with Jordan Vision 2030. This study introduces new sustainability indicators and innovative waste management alternatives to address the challenges of rapid industrialization and population growth. Four strategic scenarios-1) recycling, composting, and sanitary landfilling; 2) recycling, anaerobic digestion, and sanitary landfilling; 3) incineration and sanitary landfilling; and 4) sanitary landfilling alone-were assessed against the business-as-usual scenario. Using multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and sensitivity analysis, this study evaluates net greenhouse gas emissions, annual operating expenses, revenue streams, and employment rates to measure environmental, economic, and social sustainability. The results indicate that Scenario 1 is the optimal scenario for integrating a material recovery facility (MRF) with a composting plant and sanitary landfill, achieving the lowest greenhouse gas emissions, annual costs, and employment opportunities. This study offers practical and sustainable solutions to Jordan's waste management challenges, provides novel insights through the developed MCDA and sensitivity analysis, and significantly contributes to sustainability research.

Chlorine-induced Gas-Solid coupled corrosion behaviors of tube materials in high steam parameter MSW incinerator.

The fast development of the waste incineration industry requires deeper insights into heating surface corrosion behavior at higher operating parameters with complex corrosion sources. This research investigates the corrosion behaviors of three types of plates, namely SA210-C, TP310, and 12CrMoV, when subjected to simulated flue gas and fly ash deposition simultaneously at temperatures ranging from 500℃ to 620℃. The results indicate that the weight loss due to coupling corrosion was 2.5 to 84.5 times higher than that of gas-phase corrosion under the same operating conditions. Among the three stainless-steels, TP310 demonstrates superior corrosion resistance. It is worth noting that, under the gas-solid coupling corrosion conditions, we observed a distinct two-layer structure of corrosion products. Despite the fly ash simulants detaching over time, the two-layer structure remained unchanged. Based on the theory of eutectic molten salt formation, we propose that alkali metal chlorides only initiate the formation of the molten layer in the initial stage of corrosion. Furthermore, we offer additional suggestions for the mechanism of sustaining the molten layer in the absence of alkali metal chlorides.

A study of the stabilization and solidification of heavy metals in co-vitrification of medical waste incineration ash and coal fly ash.

Medical waste incineration ash (MWIA) has significant concentrations of heavy metals, dioxins, and chlorine that, if handled incorrectly, might cause permanent damage to the environment and humans. The low content of calcium (Ca), silicon (Si), and aluminum (Al) is a brand-new challenge for the melting technique of MWIA. This work added coal fly ash (CFA) to explore the effect of melting on the detoxication treatment of MWIA. It was found that the produced vitrification product has a high vitreous content (98.61%) and a low potential ecological risk, with an initial ash solidification rate of 67.38%. By quantitatively assessing the morphological distribution features of heavy metals in ashes before melting and molten products, the stabilization and solidification rules of heavy metals during the melting process were investigated. This work ascertained the feasibility of co-vitrification of MWIA and CFA. In addition, the high-temperature melting and vitrification accelerated the detoxification of MWIA and the solidification of heavy metals.

Comparative life cycle assessment of landfill sludge treatment technologies in China.

Reasonable treatment of large amounts of sludge excavated from landfills has gained increasing attention due to the diminishing availability of landfill space in China. In this study, five landfill sludge (LS) treatment technologies using life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) were investigated, i.e., co-incineration in coal-fired power plants (CFPP) and waste incineration power plant (WIPP), co-processing in cement kiln, bricks production, and sintering ceramsite. The LCA results demonstrate that sintering ceramsite outperforms other technologies and LCC results indicate sintering ceramsite also provides the highest economic benefit ($869.94). To further enhance environmental and economic performances of the LS treatment, the substitution of coal with natural gas and biomass can reduce Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction (ECER) index by 74% and 98%, respectively. This substitution can increase economic returns by 24% and 26%, respectively. Furthermore, national-level economic benefit and carbon emission reduction potential of different LS treatment technology alternative scenarios were assessed. Results display that a combination of 50% CFPP, 25% bricks, and 25% ceramsite (biomass) offers the highest economic gain, which is 3.02 times that of 50% CFPP and 50% cement (original case). Conversely, the replacement of 25% brick with 25% cement in the above combination result in the lowest carbon reduction, which is 9.35 times that of the original case.

Evolving waste management: The impact of environmental technology, taxes, and carbon emissions on incineration in EU countries.

Amid the urgent global imperatives concerning climate change and resource preservation, our research delves into the critical domains of waste management and environmental sustainability within the European Union (EU), collecting data from 1990 to 2022. The Method of Moments Quantile Regression (MMQR) results reveal a resounding commitment among EU member states to diminish their reliance on incineration, which is evident through adopting green technologies and environmentally conscious taxation policies, aligning with the European Union's sustainability objectives. However, this transition presents the intricate task of harmonizing industrial emissions management with efficient waste disposal. Tailoring waste management strategies to accommodate diverse consumption patterns and unique circumstances within individual member states becomes imperative. Cointegrating regressions highlighted the long-run relationship among the selected variables, while Feasible Generalized Least Squares (FGLS) and Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (PCSE) estimates roughly confirmed MMQR results. ML analyses, conducted through two ensemble methods (Gradient Boosting, GB, and Extreme Gradient Boosting, XGBoost) shed light on the relative importance of the predictors: in particular, environmental taxation, consumption-based emissions, and production-based emissions greatly contribute to determining the variation of combustible renewables and waste. This study recommends that EU countries establish monitoring mechanisms to advance waste management and environmental sustainability through green technology adoption, enhance environmental taxation policies, and accelerate the renewable energy transition.

Evolution of physicochemical and leaching characteristics of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash in China under ultra-low emission standard.

The physical and chemical characteristics of fly ash has changed significantly under ultra-low emission system and the current leaching system is no longer suitable for high alkalinity fly ash. This work investigated the pH values and evolution of physical and chemical characteristics of fly ash from 24 typical municipal solid waste incineration plants in China. The pH value of the leaching solution obtained by HJ/T 300-2007 presented two different acid and alkali characteristics, where high and low alkalinity fly ash accounted for 54.17% and 45.83%, respectively. The alkali content in fly ash increased significantly after ultra-low emission standard, increasing by 18.24% compared with before the implementation of GB 18485-2014. The leaching behavior of high alkalinity fly ash showed the illusion that they could enter the landfill only by the addition of a small amount of chelating agent or even without stabilization treatment, and its long-term landfill risk is significant. The phase change of high alkalinity fly ash and pH value change of the leaching solution after carbonation were the key factors for the leaching concentration change of heavy metals. Therefore, it is recommended to improve the existing leaching system or conduct accelerated carbonization experiments to scientifically evaluate the long-term leaching characteristics of high alkalinity fly ash, and to reduce the risk of heavy metal release from high alkalinity FA after entering the landfill site.

Gate-to-grave assessment of plastic from recycling to manufacturing of TENG: a comparison between India and Singapore.

This study assesses the viability of recycled plastic-based triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) for sustainable energy harvesting in India and Singapore, concurrently examining plastic waste management. Using material flow analysis and life cycle assessment, the findings revealed that in Singapore, waste-to-energy incineration has a lower environmental impact than landfilling and mechanical recycling, attributed to natural gas usage. In India, recycling offsets impacts from incineration and landfilling, contributing to a lower net environmental impact. Economic performance of a TENG module from PET recyclates showed a 20% carbon footprint reduction when scaling up from lab to industrial "freeze-drying" processes. Key challenges in TENG manufacturing processes are also assessed for future development. This research highlights the potential of recycled plastic-based TENGs in sustainable energy and waste management.

Resource utilization of medical waste incineration fly ash to activate peroxydisulfate for tetracycline degradation: Synergy between adsorption and PDS activation.

Medical waste incineration fly ash (MWI FA) is classified as a hazardous solid waste. Therefore, the development of recycling technologies to convert MWI FA into useful products is necessary and challenging. In this study, we developed a sustainable approach for preparing a catalyst through the pyrolysis of water-washed MWI FA (WW FA-x, where x corresponds to the pyrolysis temperature). Subsequently, it was applied as a potent peroxydisulfate (PDS) activator to remove tetracycline (TC) from water. The results showed that the WW FA-800 exhibited remarkable adsorption performance as well as highly efficient catalytic activation of PDS, with a 115 mg/g maximum TC adsorption capacity and 93.5% (reaction kinetic rate = 315 µmol/g/h) TC removal within 60 min. A synergistic effect was achieved by adsorption and PDS activation. TC degradation was primarily driven by non-radical (1O2 and electron transfer) processes. WW FA-800 possesses multiple active sites, including defects, π-π*, O-CO groups, Fe0, and Cu(I). Three possible pathways for TC decomposition have been proposed, with the majority of intermediates exhibiting less toxicity than TC. Furthermore, the WW FA/PDS system exhibited an excellent anti-interference ability, and universality in the degradation of various organic contaminants. Notably, energy consumption was minimal, approximately 2.80 kWh/(g·TC), and the leachability of heavy metals in the WW FA-800 was within acceptable limits. This study provides a MWI FA recycling route for the development of highly active catalysts.