Chronic endometritis and the endometrial microbiota: implications for reproductive success in patients with recurrent implantation failure.

BACKGROUND: Chronic endometritis (CE) is associated with poor reproductive outcomes, yet the role of endometrial microbiota in patients with recurrent implantation failure (RIF) and CE remains unclear. This study aims to characterize endometrial microbiota in RIF patients with CE and assess its implications for reproductive outcomes. METHODS: In this prospective study, we enrolled RIF patients both with and without CE. Endometrial and cervical samples were collected for 16 S rRNA gene sequencing. Microbiota composition was compared between groups using diversity indices, phylum, and genus-level analysis. Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) and Spearman's correlation coefficients were used to assess relationships between CE, reproductive outcomes, and microbiota. Predictive functional profiling was performed to evaluate metabolic pathways associated with CE. RESULTS: Endometrial microbiota in CE patients exhibited greater diversity and evenness compared to non-CE patients. Principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) revealed distinct clustering between CE and non-CE groups. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) identified Proteobacteria, Aminicenantales, and Chloroflexaceae as characteristic of CE, while Lactobacillus, Acinetobacter, Herbaspirillum, Ralstonia, Shewanela, and Micrococcaceae were associated with non-CE. CCA demonstrated associations between CE, adverse reproductive outcomes, and specific bacterial taxa. Microbial metabolic pathways significantly differed between CE and non-CE groups, with enrichment in pathways related to cofactors, vitamins, secondary metabolites, and the immune system in CE patients. CONCLUSION: RIF patients with CE exhibit distinct endometrial microbiota compositions associated with adverse reproductive outcomes. The increased microbial diversity and altered metabolic pathways in CE suggest a potential correlation with reproductive outcomes, although further studies are necessary to elucidate the causal relationship between microbiota alterations and fertility. Modulating the endometrial microbiome may represent a novel therapeutic strategy to improve IVF outcomes in patients with CE.

Association between bacterial vaginosis, Chlamydia trachomatis infection and tubal factor infertility in Bukavu, Democratic Republic of Congo.

BACKGROUND: Tubal factor infertility (TFI) is common in sub-Saharan Africa and often secondary to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Anaerobes associated with bacterial vaginosis (BV) are also found in PIDs widely dominated by Chlamydia trachomatis (C. trachomatis), whose role in TFI is better demonstrated than that of BV. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of BV and C. trachomatis and to investigate the association between BV, C. trachomatis and TFI. METHODS: We included 137 patients treated for infertility between January 2020 and November 2021. Cases were defined as women with infertility aged 18-45 years presenting with TFI (n = 52), and controls as infertile women in the same age groups without TFI (n = 85). Data on social habits, life style and infertility parameters were collected, and we performed screening for BV and C. trachomatis. Multiple regression was used to measure associations. RESULTS: The prevalence of BV and C. trachomatis was 42.3% (58/137) and 23.4% (32/137), respectively. BV (61.5% vs 30.6%, p<0.001) and C. trachomatis (48.1 vs 8.2%, p<0.001) were more frequent in cases of TFI. BV and C. trachomatis increased the risk of TFI approximately 4-fold [aOR: 3.77 (1.61-8.83), p=0.002] and 14-fold [aOR: 13.77 (4.59-41.27), p<0.001], respectively. CONCLUSION: BV and C. trachomatis infection are strongly associated with TFI in Bukavu. Prevention and screening should be implemented to reduce the risk of TFI.

The impact of caesarean scar niche on fertility - a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: The trend of increasing caesarean section (CS) rates brings up questions related to subfertility. Research regarding the influence of CS on assisted reproduction techniques (ART) is conflicting. A potential mechanism behind CS-induced subfertility is intra uterine fluid resulting from a caesarean scar defect or niche. The vaginal microbiome has been repeatedly connected to negative ART outcomes, but it is unknown if the microbiome is changed in relation to a niche. METHODS: This systematic review describes literature investigating the effect of a niche on live birth rates after assisted reproduction. Furthermore, studies investigating a difference in microbial composition in subfertile persons with a niche compared to no niche are evaluated. Pubmed, Embase and Web of Science were searched on March 2023 for comparative studies on both study questions. Inclusion criteria were i.e., English language, human-only studies, availability of the full article and presence of comparative pregnancy data on a niche. The quality of the included studies and their risk of bias were assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for cohort studies. The results were graphically displayed in a forest plot. RESULTS: Six retrospective cohort studies could be included on fertility outcomes, with a total of 1083 persons with a niche and 3987 without a niche. The overall direction of effect shows a negative impact of a niche on the live birth rate (pooled aOR 0.58, 95% CI 0.48-0.69) with low-grade evidence. Three studies comparing the microbiome between persons with and without a CS could be identified. CONCLUSION: There is low-grade evidence to conclude that the presence of a niche reduces live birth rates when compared to persons without a niche. The theory that a caesarean has a negative impact on pregnancy outcomes because of dysbiosis promoted by the niche is interesting, but there is no sufficient literature about this.

The increasing number of caesarean deliveries has raised concerns about how it might affect a woman's ability to get pregnant afterwards. Some studies suggest that having a caesarean section (CS) could make it harder to conceive, particularly through in vitro fertilisation (IVF). The reason could be the scar or niche from a previous caesarean. This niche can cause fluid inside the uterus. We also know that the mix of bacteria in the vagina, called the vaginal microbiome, can affect a woman's chances of getting pregnant, especially with treatments like IVF. But we are not sure if having a caesarean affects the vaginal microbiome.To understand this better, van den Tweel's team looked at studies on whether having a niche from a caesarean affects a woman's chance of having a baby through IVF. They also looked at studies comparing the bacteria in the vagina of women who have had a caesarean with those who have not. They found that having a caesarean niche makes it harder for a woman to have a baby through IVF. However, the evidence from these studies is not very strong. We still do not know enough about whether having a caesarean niche affects the bacteria in the vagina.

Beyond the reproductive tract: gut microbiome and its influence on gynecological health.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The analysis of microbiome in association with female health is today a "hot topic" with the main focus on microbes in the female reproductive tract. Nevertheless, recent studies are providing novel information of the possible influence of the gut microbiome on gynecological health outcomes, especially as we start to understand that the gut microbiome is an extended endocrine organ influencing female hormonal levels. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the gut microbes in association with gynecological health. RECENT FINDINGS: The gut microbiome has been associated with endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, gynecological cancers, and infertility, although there is a lack of consistency and consensus among studies due to different study designs and protocols used, and the studies in general are underpowered. SUMMARY: The interconnection between the gut microbiome and reproductive health is complex and further research is warranted. The current knowledge in the field emphasizes the link between the microbiome and gynecological health outcomes, with high potential for novel diagnostic and treatment tools via modulation of the microenvironment.

Tuberculosis in pregnancy and assisted reproductive technology.

Tuberculosis is a chronic infectious disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. In the world, tuberculosis is an important factor affecting women's reproductive health, which can cause reproductive tract anatomy abnormalities, embryo implantation obstacles, ovarian reserve and ovulation dysfunction, leading to female infertility. This group of women usually need to seek assisted reproductive technology to conceive. Latent tuberculosis infection during pregnancy has no clinical manifestation, but may develop into active tuberculosis, leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Most pregnant women do not need to be treated for latent tuberculosis infection, unless they are combined with high-risk factors for tuberculosis progress, but they need close follow-up. Early diagnosis and treatment of active tuberculosis in pregnancy can reduce the incidence rate and mortality of pregnant women and newborns, and treatment needs multidisciplinary cooperation.

Analysis of the potential regulatory mechanisms of female and latent genital tuberculosis affecting ovarian reserve function using untargeted metabolomics.

Female and latent genital tuberculosis (FGTB and LGTB) in young women may lead to infertility by damaging ovarian reserve function, but the regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the effects of FGTB and LGTB on ovarian reserve function and potential regulatory mechanisms by untargeted metabolomics of follicular fluid, aiming to provide insights for the clinical management and treatment approaches for afflicted women. We recruited 19 patients with FGTB, 16 patients with LGTB, and 16 healthy women as a control group. Clinical data analysis revealed that both the FGTB and LGTB groups had significantly lower ovarian reserve marker levels compared to the control group, including lower anti-Müllerian hormone levels (FGTB: 0.82 [0.6, 1.1] µg/L; LGTB: 1.57 [1.3, 1.8] µg/L vs. control: 3.29 [2.9, 3.5] µg/L), reduced antral follicular counts (FGTB: 6 [5.5, 9.5]; LGTB: 10.5 [7, 12.3] vs. control: 17 [14.5, 18]), and fewer retrieved oocytes (FGTB: 3 [2, 5]; LGTB: 8 [4, 8.3] vs. control: 14.5 [11.5, 15.3]). Conversely, these groups exhibited higher ovarian response marker levels, such as longer gonadotropin treatment days (FGTB: 12 [10.5, 12.5]; LGTB: 11 [10.8, 11.3] vs. control: 10 [8.8, 10]) and increased gonadotropin dosage requirements (FGTB: 3300 [3075, 3637.5] U; LGTB: 3037.5 [2700, 3225] U vs. control: 2531.25 [2337.5, 2943.8] U). All comparisons were statistically significant at P < 0.05. The results suggested that FGTB and LGTB have adverse effects on ovarian reserve and response. Untargeted metabolomic analysis identified 92 and 80 differential metabolites in the control vs. FGTB and control vs. LGTB groups, respectively. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed significant alterations in metabolic pathways in the FGTB and LGTB groups compared to the control group (P < 0.05), with specific changes noted in galactose metabolism, biotin metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis, and nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism in the FGTB group, and caffeine metabolism, primary bile acid biosynthesis, steroid hormone biosynthesis, and glycerophospholipid metabolism in the LGTB group. The analysis of metabolic levels has revealed the potential mechanisms by which FGTB and LGTB affect ovarian reserve function, namely through alterations in metabolic pathways. The study emphasizes the importance of comprehending the metabolic alterations associated with FGTB and LGTB, which is of considerable relevance for the clinical management and therapeutic approaches in afflicted women.

Role of vaginal microbiota in idiopathic infertility: a prospective study.

OBJECTIVE: The causes of idiopathic infertility are still not known; however, it may be associated with microbial etiologies. The present study examines the vaginal microbiota of infertile as well as fertile women longitudinally. METHODOLOGY: The study was presented and accepted by the Institutional Ethical Committee of Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu and Kashmir (India). An observational, prospective, multicenteric investigation was conducted at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Government Medical College Jammu, and its affiliated hospitals in Jammu and Kashmir (India). In order to examine the microbial composition, a cohort of 80 female individuals were involved in the screening process. The investigation involved sequencing of the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA gene, which was subsequently analyzed using the Mothur pipeline. RESULTS: The study revealed that the vaginal microbiota of infertile women differed from that of healthy women who had previously given birth without any complications. Both populations have variations in their alpha as well as beta diversity and taxonomical composition. The microbial profiles in the cases of infertility are characterized by elevated levels of Gardnerella, Prevotella, Atopobium, and Enterococcus whereas a higher level of Lactobacillus iners was observed in case of fertile women. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, it can be inferred that the composition of the vaginal microbiome potentially exerts a significant influence on females afflicted with idiopathic infertility.

Prevalence, risk factors and genotyping of chlamydia trachomatis from endocervical specimens of infertile women at a tertiary care hospital, Vietnam.

BACKGROUND: To our knowledge, the prevalence, risk factors and distribution of C. trachomatis genotypes are rarely mentioned in Vietnam. This study aimed to find the prevalence, risk factors and distribution of C. trachomatis genotypes in infertile Vietnamese women. METHODS: Endocervical swabs were collected from infertile women at the National Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vietnam, between January 2020 and December 2021. All samples were analyzed for C. trachomatis presence by Cobas 4800 CT/NG Test. Sequencing methods of ompA gene were used to determine the C. trachomatis genotypes. An approximately 1200 bp ompA fragment was aligned with reference sequences from GenBank to identify the corresponding genotype. RESULTS: The prevalence of endocervical C. trachomatis infection was 15.6% of 761 participants. Factors independently associated with CT infection among infertile women, obtained by multivariate analysis, included abnormal vaginal discharge, cervicitis, lower abdominal pain, a history of ectopic pregnancy, having more than one sex partner, and age at first intercourse. Among the samples, genotype E (25.93%) was most frequently found, followed by genotypes D/Da (22.23%), F (13.58%), G/Ga (12.35%), J (12.35%), H (6.17%), K (3.70%), B/Ba (2.47%), and I/Ia (1.23%), respectively. Genotype F was related to types of infertility, and genotype H was associated with a history of miscarriage. CONCLUSIONS: The present study indicated a high prevalence of C. trachomatis in infertile Vietnamese women. The most common genotypes found in this population were E, D, and F. Our findings suggest that routine screening is necessary for early detection and performance of infection control methods.

[Vaginal microbiota abnormalities in women with unexplained infertility and its treatment].

The vaginal microbiota is a complex and dynamic environment that plays an important role in the healthy reproduction of women. The mechanism of unexplained infertility is not yet clear, and the imbalance and low stability of vaginal microbiota may be related to unexplained infertility. Taking probiotic composite preparations to restore normal vaginal microbiota may be a safe and natural method for treating unexplained infertility. This article reviews the probiotic composite preparations used in the treatment of unexplained infertility both domestically and internationally, including the isolation site of the bacterial species, the use method of the composite preparation, the course of treatment, and the final therapeutic effect, aiming to provide a basis for the clinical application of probiotic composite preparations in the treatment of unexplained infertility.

Analysis of the microbiota composition in the genital tract of infertile patients with chronic endometritis or endometrial polyps.

Background: The previous researches show that infertile patients have a higher incidence of endometritis and endometrial polyps, and the occurrence of these two diseases is related to changes in the microbiota of the genital tract. We aim to determine the composition and changing characteristics of the microbiota in the genital tract (especially the endometrium) of infertile patients with chronic endometritis or endometrial polyps, and find the correlation between it and the occurrence of diseases. Methods: This is a prospective study. We collected genital tract biopsy samples from 134 asymptomatic infertile patients receiving assisted reproductive therapy before embryo transfer. Through pathological examination and 16S ribosomal RNA(16S rRNA) sequencing, we determined the distribution of chronic endometritis and endometrial polyps in these patients, as well as their distribution of reproductive tract microorganisms. Results: Compared with the normal control group, the microbial group of reproductive tract in patients with chronic endometritis and endometrial polyps is changed, and there are significant species differences and relative abundance differences in the vagina, cervix and uterine cavity. Lactobacillus, the dominant flora of female genital tract, showed a change in abundance in patients with endometrial diseases. Endometrial microbiota composed of Staphylococcus, Gardnerella, Atopobium, Streptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Chlamydia, Fusobacterium, Acinetobacter, etc. are related to chronic endometritis and endometrial polyps. Conclusion: The results showed that, compared with the normal control group, the endometrial microbiota of infertile patients with chronic endometritis or endometrial polyps did have significant changes in the relative abundance distribution of species, suggesting that changes in local microecology may be an important factor in the occurrence of disease, or even adverse pregnancy outcomes. The further study of endometrial microecology may provide a new opportunity to further improve the diagnosis and treatment strategy of chronic endometritis.

Forty years of development of salpingitis animal modeling.

This review summarizes and examines research in the area of salpingitis animal modeling in the last 40 years, focusing primarily on Chlamydia trachomatis animal models, which are the most numerous in the literature. Early animal models are examined, followed by a discussion of study parameters and their impact on modeling success, subsequent considerations of fertility measures in modeling, explorations of treatment options, and finally exploring recent directions with a brief discussion of models using other bacterial pathogens.

Evaluation of Ureaplasma urealyticum, Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma genitalium and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in infertile women compared to pregnant women.

Infertility is one of the major health problems of patients suffering from bacterial infections. Given the high percentage of infertility, the aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma genitalium, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Ureaplasma urealyticum in fertile and infertile women. In the prospective study, 65 infertile patients and 54 pregnant women referred to Mahdieh Hospital in Tehran were included. After transferring of vaginal swabs to the laboratory, DNA extraction and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) were performed using specific primers. Of the 65 vaginal swab specimens, the prevalence of U. urealyticum, M. genitalium, C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae were as 15 (23.1%), 11 (16.9%), 9 (13.8%) and 4 (6.2%), respectively; However, these rate in fertile group was as 6 (11.1%), 3 (5.5%), 5 (9.2%) and 1 (1.8%), respectively. Bacterial infections were higher in infertile group; therefore, these bacterial agents may be associated with female infertility. Timely control and treatment of infections caused by these organisms, together with other factors, can be important in prevention and treatment of the women's infertility and thereby community health.Impact StatementWhat is already known on this subject? Infertility is one of the most common reproductive health issues in Iran. Female reproductive system is a suitable environment for the growth of many pathogens, which may disrupt any stage of foetal formation, implantation or growth. Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma genitalium and Ureaplasma urealyticum are the most important microorganisms that have been considered in the infertility.What do the results of this study add? The prevalence of C. trachomatis, M. genitalium, N. gonorrhoeae, M. genitalium and U. urealyticum were higher in infertile women, but there was no statistically significant compared to pregnant women. These results suggest that timely control and treatment of infections caused by these organisms, along with other factors, can be used to prevent and treat women infertility and community health.What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? Based on the results, designing and implementing national control programs to prevent subsequent complications is thought to be necessary. Comprehensive analyses of the overall prevalence of these bacteria, particularly in developing countries (including Iran), may help to carry out such a strategy.

Fallopian tubal infertility: the result of Chlamydia trachomatis-induced fallopian tubal fibrosis.

Chlamydia trachomatis is one of the most common pathogens of sexually transmitted diseases, and its incidence in genital tract infections is now 4.7% in south China. Infertility is the end result of C. trachomatis-induced fallopian tubal fibrosis and is receiving intense attention from scientists worldwide. To reduce the incidence of infertility, it is important to understand the pathology-related changes of the genital tract where C. trachomatis infection is significant, especially the mechanism of fibrosis formation. During fibrosis development, the fallopian tube becomes sticky and occluded, which will eventually lead to tubal infertility. At present, the mechanism of fallopian tubal fibrosis induced by C. trachomatis infection is unclear. Our study attempted to summarize the possible mechanisms of fibrosis caused by C. trachomatis infection in the fallopian tube by reviewing published studies and further providing potential therapeutic targets to reduce the occurrence of infertility. This study also provides ideas for future research. Factors leading to fallopian tube fibrosis include inflammatory factors, miRNA, ECT, cHSP, and host factors. We hypothesized that C. trachomatis mediates the transcription and translation of EMT and ECM via upregulating TGF signaling pathway, which leads to the formation of fallopian tube fibrosis and ultimately to tubal infertility.

Imaging Spectrum of Female Genital Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive Review.

Female genital tuberculosis is a relatively uncommon form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis that is under-reported and under-recognized. The early course of the disease has fewer manifestations, resulting in late presentation with grave complications like infertility and ectopic pregnancy. Also, difficulty in isolation of the causative bacteria further delays the diagnosis. The radiologist should be well versed with imaging findings of female genital TB to help the clinicians to initiate prompt treatment. This review shall cover imaging findings of female genital TB involving fallopian tubes, uterus, ovaries, cervix, vagina, and vulva on different imaging modalities. Fallopian tubes are almost always involved in genital TB followed by uterus and ovaries. Hysterosalpingogram and ultrasound can best detect tubercular changes in fallopian tubes and uterus whereas cross-sectional imaging is essential for the diagnosis of ovarian or peritoneal TB as they closely mimic malignancy. Cervical, vaginal, or vulval TB produces nonspecific changes and histopathological diagnosis is required for confirmation of the diagnoses. Close differential diagnosis on imaging like malignancy or pelvic inflammatory disease, are also discussed with a brief discussion of the pathogenesis.

Host Genetic Risk Factors for Chlamydia trachomatis-Related Infertility in Women.

BACKGROUND: Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) infection ascending to the upper genital tract can cause infertility. Direct association of genetic variants as contributors is challenging because infertility may not be diagnosed until years after infection. Investigating the intermediate trait of ascension bridges this gap. METHODS: We identified infertility genome-wide association study (GWAS) loci using deoxyribonucleic acid from Ct-seropositive cisgender women in a tubal factor infertility study and Ct-infected cisgender women from a longitudinal pelvic inflammatory disease cohort with known fertility status. Deoxyribonucleic acid and blood messenger ribonucleic acid from 2 additional female cohorts with active Ct infection and known endometrial infection status were used to investigate the impact of infertility single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on Ct ascension. A statistical mediation test examined whether multiple infertility SNPs jointly influenced ascension risk by modulating expression of mediator genes. RESULTS: We identified 112 candidate infertility GWAS loci, and 31 associated with Ct ascension. The SNPs altered chlamydial ascension by modulating expression of 40 mediator genes. Mediator genes identified are involved in innate immune responses including type I interferon production, T-cell function, fibrosis, female reproductive tract health, and protein synthesis and degradation. CONCLUSIONS: We identified Ct-related infertility loci and their potential functional effects on Ct ascension.

What Can Serology Tell Us About the Burden of Infertility in Women Caused by Chlamydia?

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) causes pelvic inflammatory disease, which may result in tubal factor infertility (TFI) in women. Serologic assays may be used to determine the proportion of women with and without TFI who have had previous CT infection and to generate estimates of infertility attributable to chlamydia. Unfortunately, most existing CT serologic assays are challenged by low sensitivity and, sometimes, specificity for prior CT infection; however, they are currently the only available tests available to detect prior CT infection. Modeling methods such as finite mixture modeling may be a useful adjunct to quantitative serologic data to obtain better estimates of CT-related infertility. In this article, we review CT serological assays, including the use of antigens preferentially expressed during upper genital tract infection, and suggest future research directions. These methodologic improvements, coupled with creation of new biomarkers for previous CT infection, should improve our understanding of chlamydia's contribution to female infertility.

Effect of probiotics on vaginal Ureaplasma parvum in women suffering from unexplained infertility.

RESEARCH QUESTION: Does oral probiotic supplementation influence the relative abundance of different vaginal microbiota in women experiencing infertility? DESIGN: A prospective, monocentric randomized controlled trial. To study the influence of probiotics on infertility, 80 patients with primary or secondary infertility were included. Patients were assigned to either a probiotic treatment or a control group. Participants in the treatment group (n = 40) took one sachet (2 g) a day of a defined probiotic supplement limiting Lactobacillus strains. Patients in the control group did not receive any additional probiotic supplements. Vaginal samples were taken on day 20 of the menstrual cycle and 4 weeks later, on day 20, of the consecutive cycle. Subsequently, 16s rRNA gene analysis of the vaginal samples was conducted. RESULTS: After the intervention phase, no effects on alpha diversity resulting from treatment could be observed. The between sample diversity of different women (beta diversity) at baseline had no effects of age, treatment group or body mass index. Primary or secondary sterility, however, had a significant effect on community. Three clusters (Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus iners and Lactobacillus gasseri) were identified as the leading representatives. Furthermore, patients treated with probiotics showed limited growth of Ureaplasma parvum compared with the control group (P = 0.021). CONCLUSIONS: This study points to a possible protective effect of probiotic supplements on the vaginal microbiota. It is tempting to speculate that this effect assists in containing the growth of non-beneficial bacteria and helps to prevent or cure a dysbiotic vaginal flora.

Results from a large cross-sectional study assessing Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma spp. and Mycoplasma hominis urogenital infections in patients with primary infertility.

Female and male infertility have been associated to Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma spp. and Mycoplasma hominis urogenital infections. However, evidence from large studies assessing their prevalence and putative associations in patients with infertility is still scarce. The study design was a cross-sectional study including 5464 patients with a recent diagnosis of couple's primary infertility and 404 healthy control individuals from Cordoba, Argentina. Overall, the prevalence of C. trachomatis, Ureaplasma spp. and M. hominis urogenital infection was significantly higher in patients than in control individuals (5.3%, 22.8% and 7.4% vs. 2.0%, 17.8% and 1.7%, respectively). C. trachomatis and M. hominis infections were significantly more prevalent in male patients whereas Ureaplasma spp. and M. hominis infections were more prevalent in female patients. Of clinical importance, C. trachomatis and Ureaplasma spp. infections were significantly higher in patients younger than 25 years. Moreover, Ureaplasma spp. and M. hominis infections were associated to each other in either female or male patients being reciprocal risk factors of their co-infection. Our data revealed that C. trachomatis, Ureaplasma spp. and M. hominis are prevalent uropathogens in patients with couple's primary infertility. These results highlight the importance of including the screening of urogenital infections in the diagnostic workup of infertility.

Potential biomarkers of infertility associated with microbiome imbalances.

PROBLEM: The aim of this study was to investigate the possible relationship between vaginal/rectal microbiome disbalances and miRNA expression with infertility. METHOD OF STUDY: Observational, exploratory, preliminary study. A total of 287 multiple IVF failure infertile patients were recruited. Twenty fertile women, not IVF failure, were recruited as the control group. Swab samples were collected from the vagina and rectum. Microbial composition by NGS and miRNA expression by real-time PCR of vaginal and rectal samples was measured. Immunometabolic markers from blood (insulin, vitamin D, LDL-cholesterol, ANA, TPO, Tg, and ASCA antibodies) and saliva (sIgA) were analyzed. RESULT(S): Infertile patients showed a lower bacterial richness and increased Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio at rectal level and an increased Lactobacillus brevis/Lactobacillus iners ratio in vaginal samples regarding the fertile group. In the same rectal swab samples, we found that miR-21-5p, which is associated with tight junction disruption and yeast overgrowth, is upregulated and that miR-155-5p, which is associated with inflammation, is overexpressed in the unexplained infertile group (*p < .05). These deregulated miRNAs were also upregulated in the vaginal samples from the same patients (*p < .05). CONCLUSION: miRNAs could be potential biomarkers of the inflammatory impact of microbiome disbalances in unexplained infertile women.

How prevalent are symptoms and risk factors of pelvic inflammatory disease in a sexually conservative population.

BACKGROUND: Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is the inflammation of the adnexa of the uterus, that mainly manifests in a subclinical/chronic context and goes largely underreported. However, it poses a major threat to women's health, as it is responsible for infertility and ectopic pregnancies, as well as chronic pelvic pain. Previous studies in Jordan have not reported PID, attributed mainly to the social structure of the country which largely represents a sexually conservative population. Our study aims to report the clinical symptoms that point towards PID and investigate the major risk determinants for the Jordanian population, in a cross-sectional study, using our scoring system based only on clinical data and examination. METHODS: One hundred sixty-eight consecutive adult women that came in the Outpatient Clinics of Gynaecological Department of the Jordan University Hospital were interviewed and their medical history and symptoms were registered and analysed. A Score for PID symptoms, we developed, was given to each woman. Results and correlations were then statistically tested. RESULTS: Our study population consisted of relatively young women (37.7 ± 11) that had their first child at an average age of 24.1 (± 4.8) and a mean parity of 3.1 (± 2.2). Fifty-eight women (34.5%) reported having undergone at least one CS, while the mean PID Symptom Score was 3.3 (± 2.3). The women in our study exhibited 8 symptoms of PID, namely dysmenorrhea and vaginal discharge; being the commonest (45.2% and 44.6% respectively), in addition to chronic pelvic pain, pelvic heaviness, menorrhagia, dyspareunia, urinary symptoms, and smelly urine. They also reported history of 3 conditions that can be attributed to PID, that is infertility, preterm labour, and miscarriages. CONCLUSIONS: Our PID Scoring System seems to identify the risk factors of PID and predict well the PID likelihood. This score predicts that women with higher parity, who used contraceptives and underwent any invasive medical procedure are expected to score higher in the PID Symptom Score. Our data also suggest that PID should not be ruled out in the Jordanian population when symptoms are compatible to this diagnosis.

As a sexually conservative country, Jordan is thought to have a low prevalence of pelvic inflammatory disease. The prevalence of STD pathogens is very low, however many patients present symptoms of PID, so we randomly interviewed 168 healthy participants and investigated symptoms related to PID. Surprisingly the percentage of participants who had symptoms of PID was high, reaching up to 64% for some symptoms. We then created a PID symptom score; where every symptom gets one mark (1­11), and tested it for association against independent factors. As a result, it can be predicted that a woman with higher parity, who used contraceptives, and underwent E & C, D & C, HSG, or Hysteroscopy is expected to score higher in the PID Symptom Score.This result draws the attention to PID incidence in similar conservative communities, and therefore further research is needed to confirm the prevalence of PID and identify the causative factors.