Mitochondrial DNA sequence-based identification of two subterranean termite species, from Riyadh Province, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Termites are economically important wood-destroying and agricultural pests. The termite fauna almost consists of 2900 described species in 286 genera worldwide. In the present study, hundreds of termite samples from 42 different locations in the Riyadh province were collected. These samples were previously used for morphometric identification and reported two subterranean termite species, Coptotermes heimi and Psammotermes hypostoma, in the family Rhinotermitidae. In the present study, these samples were analysed using DNA barcoding with the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene to confirm the conventional taxonomical identification on a molecular basis. The obtained COI gene sequences of all 42 termite specimens were submitted to GenBank (accession numbers: ON529959-ON529969, OP825131-OP825132, and OP890882-OP890910). Eleven of the 42 samples were thus identified as C. heimi and the remaining 31 samples as P. hypostoma, which were phylogenetically analysed. All the 11 C. heimi sequences were grouped in a single clade, indicating close relatedness. While 31 sequences of P. hypostoma constituted two clades in the phylogenetic tree. Pairwise nucleotide sequence identity and divergence analysis showed that C. heimi sequences showed high nucleotide identities of 87.6-99.5% and less divergence ranging from 0.5% to 13.6%. Similarly, sequences of P. hypostoma also showed high nucleotide identity of 78.6-100% and low divergence among them ranging from 0-10.7%. A further application, significance, and shortcomings of COI-based DNA barcoding have been discussed. DNA barcoding using the COI gene is a reliable tool to distinguish C. heimi and P. hypostoma genotypes.

Phylogenomic analyses of Blattodea combining traditional methods, incremental tree-building, and quality-aware support.

Despite the many advances of the genomic era, there is a persistent problem in assessing the uncertainty of phylogenomic hypotheses. We see this in the recent history of phylogenetics for cockroaches and termites (Blattodea), where huge advances have been made, but there are still major inconsistencies between studies. To address this, we present a phylogenetic analysis of Blattodea that emphasizes identification and quantification of uncertainty. We analyze 1183 gene domains using three methods (multi-species coalescent inference, concatenation, and a supermatrix-supertree hybrid approach) and assess support for controversial relationships while considering data quality. The hybrid approach-here dubbed "tiered phylogenetic inference"-incorporates information about data quality into an incremental tree building framework. Leveraging this method, we are able to identify cases of low or misleading support that would not be possible otherwise, and explore them more thoroughly with follow-up tests. In particular, quality annotations pointed towards nodes with high bootstrap support that later turned out to have large ambiguities, sometimes resulting from low-quality data. We also clarify issues related to some recalcitrant nodes: Anaplectidae's placement lacks unbiased signal, Ectobiidae s.s. and Anaplectoideini need greater taxon sampling, the deepest relationships among most Blaberidae lack signal. As a result, several previous phylogenetic uncertainties are now closer to being resolved (e.g., African and Malagasy "Rhabdoblatta" spp. are the sister to all other Blaberidae, and Oxyhaloinae is sister to the remaining Blaberidae). Overall, we argue for more approaches to quantifying support that take data quality into account to uncover the nature of recalcitrant nodes.

Genomic data provide insights into the classification of extant termites.

The higher classification of termites requires substantial revision as the Neoisoptera, the most diverse termite lineage, comprise many paraphyletic and polyphyletic higher taxa. Here, we produce an updated termite classification using genomic-scale analyses. We reconstruct phylogenies under diverse substitution models with ultraconserved elements analyzed as concatenated matrices or within the multi-species coalescence framework. Our classification is further supported by analyses controlling for rogue loci and taxa, and topological tests. We show that the Neoisoptera are composed of seven family-level monophyletic lineages, including the Heterotermitidae Froggatt, Psammotermitidae Holmgren, and Termitogetonidae Holmgren, raised from subfamilial rank. The species-rich Termitidae are composed of 18 subfamily-level monophyletic lineages, including the new subfamilies Crepititermitinae, Cylindrotermitinae, Forficulitermitinae, Neocapritermitinae, Protohamitermitinae, and Promirotermitinae; and the revived Amitermitinae Kemner, Microcerotermitinae Holmgren, and Mirocapritermitinae Kemner. Building an updated taxonomic classification on the foundation of unambiguously supported monophyletic lineages makes it highly resilient to potential destabilization caused by the future availability of novel phylogenetic markers and methods. The taxonomic stability is further guaranteed by the modularity of the new termite classification, designed to accommodate as-yet undescribed species with uncertain affinities to the herein delimited monophyletic lineages in the form of new families or subfamilies.

Taxonomic and Ecological Notes on Termes propinquus Holmgren, 1914 Known from Sumatra (Blattodea: Termitoidae: Termitidae).

The genus Termes Linneus, 1758 consisting of a total of 24 valid named species known from the Old World, is a very heterogeneous group of termites and seems to involve many taxonomic obscurities and confusions. In the island of Sumatra, the sixth-largest island located in the Southeast Asian tropics, four species of Termes have been found, namely, T. comis, T. laticornis, T. rostratus, and T. propinquus. Termes propinquus is also known from Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra), Malaysia, and Thailand. However, previous authors have mentioned that T. propinquus has been poorly discriminated from the other congeners, especially T. rostratus. Therefore, the present study aimed at clarifying the discrimination of Termes propinquus from the morphologically similar congeners from Sumatra. A total of 14 nests were collected using a standardized sampling protocol and visual colony searching in Sumatra and its adjacent island. As a result of a careful morphological examination of the soldier caste, T. propinquus was discriminated from the three other congeners by a combination of the following characteristics: distinctly long frontal projection, larger head capsule, and 2nd antennal segment distinctly longer than the 3rd. The redescription of the soldier caste of T. propinquus and a key to Termes species known from Sundaland are provided. The nests of T. propinquus were attached to the bases of living trees, clinging to stumps or the bases of the dead tree, or were epigeal.

Termite taxonomy from 20012021: the contribution of Zootaxa.

Termites comprise a relatively small group of insects, with 3176 known species (2976 living and 200 fossil) (Constantino 2020). They include, however, very important urban and agricultural pests, and also major decomposers of plant matter in terrestrial ecosystems, especially in the tropics. For instance, the annual economic impact of a single invasive termite species, Coptotermes formosanus, was estimated as US$11 billion in the United States in 1999 (Su 2002), placing it among the most important insect pests in the world.

Termite evolution: mutualistic associations, key innovations, and the rise of Termitidae.

Termites are a clade of eusocial wood-feeding roaches with > 3000 described species. Eusociality emerged ~ 150 million years ago in the ancestor of modern termites, which, since then, have acquired and sometimes lost a series of adaptive traits defining of their evolution. Termites primarily feed on wood, and digest cellulose in association with their obligatory nutritional mutualistic gut microbes. Recent advances in our understanding of termite phylogenetic relationships have served to provide a tentative timeline for the emergence of innovative traits and their consequences on the ecological success of termites. While all "lower" termites rely on cellulolytic protists to digest wood, "higher" termites (Termitidae), which comprise ~ 70% of termite species, do not rely on protists for digestion. The loss of protists in Termitidae was a critical evolutionary step that fostered the emergence of novel traits, resulting in a diversification of morphology, diets, and niches to an extent unattained by "lower" termites. However, the mechanisms that led to the initial loss of protists and the succession of events that took place in the termite gut remain speculative. In this review, we provide an overview of the key innovative traits acquired by termites during their evolution, which ultimately set the stage for the emergence of "higher" termites. We then discuss two hypotheses concerning the loss of protists in Termitidae, either through an externalization of the digestion or a dietary transition. Finally, we argue that many aspects of termite evolution remain speculative, as most termite biological diversity and evolutionary trajectories have yet to be explored.

Evaluating the data quality of iNaturalist termite records.

Citizen science (CS) contributes to the knowledge about species distributions, which is a critical foundation in the studies of invasive species, biological conservation, and response to climatic change. In this study, we assessed the value of CS for termites worldwide. First, we compared the abundance and species diversity of geo-tagged termite records in iNaturalist to that of the University of Florida termite collection (UFTC) and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). Second, we quantified how the combination of these data sources affected the number of genera that satisfy data requirements for ecological niche modeling. Third, we assessed the taxonomic correctness of iNaturalist termite records in the Americas at the genus and family level through expert review based on photo identification. Results showed that iNaturalist records were less abundant than those in the UFTC and in GBIF, although they complemented the latter two in selected world regions. A combination of GBIF and the UFTC led to a significant increase in the number of termite genera satisfying the abundance criterion for niche modeling compared to either of those two sources alone, whereas adding iNaturalist observations as a third source only had a moderate effect on the number of termite genera satisfying that criterion. Although research grade observations in iNaturalist require a community-supported and agreed upon identification (ID) below the family taxonomic rank, our results indicated that iNaturalist data do not exhibit a higher taxonomic classification accuracy when they are designated research grade. This means that non-research grade observations can be used to more completely map the presence of termite locations in certain geographic locations without significantly jeopardizing data quality. We concluded that CS termite observation records can, to some extent, complement expert termite collections in terms of geographic coverage and species diversity. Based on recent data contribution patterns in CS data, the role of CS termite contributions is expected to grow significantly in the near future.

Anatomical specializations of the gizzard in soil-feeding termites (Termitidae, Apicotermitinae): Taxonomical and functional implications.

The anatomy of the workers' digestive tube is essential in taxonomical studies of soil-feeding Apicotermitinae termites, especially in soldierless lineages. Two structures, the mesenteric-proctodeal junction and the enteric valve, have long been important to distinguish genera and species. By contrast, the gizzard (proventriculus) has been almost ignored by taxonomists because of its generally regressed state in soil-feeding termites. In this study, we document in detail for the first time the sclerotized structures and ornamentations in the gizzard in the Apicotermitinae subfamily. We identified two main clusters of species: those without ornamentations and those exhibiting a sclerotized pulvillar armature, which may include spicules or spines of diverse sizes, numbers and dispositions. The latter group comprises the majority of African soldierless species, a widely diverse and dominant group in tropical forests and savannas. We outline the potential role of the anatomy of the gizzard in the taxonomy of Apicotermitinae based on the interspecific anatomical variation of the pulvillar armatures. We suggest that sclerotized ornamentations regulate the flow of food particles and break or lacerate aggregates to facilitate the access of enzymes in the midgut.

Comparative anatomy of the gut of the South American species of Amitermes, with description of two new species and an identification key based on soldiers and workers.

In this contribution we present updates on the taxonomy and morphology of the South American species of Amitermes. Two new species are described: Amitermes bandeirai, sp. n., from Brazil, and Amitermes lilloi, sp. n., from Argentina. Amitermes nordestinus is a junior synonym of Amitermes aporema. The imago of A. aporema is described for the first time. Detailed comparative gut anatomy of the eight species is presented for the first time. The geographic distribution of Amitermes in South America is expanded and the distribution patterns of some species are discussed.

Caste-specific nutritional differences define carbon and nitrogen fluxes within symbiotic food webs in African termite mounds.

Fungus-growing termites of the genus Macrotermes cultivate symbiotic fungi (Termitomyces) in their underground nest chambers to degrade plant matter collected from the environment. Although the general mechanism of food processing is relatively well-known, it has remained unclear whether the termites get their nutrition primarily from the fungal mycelium or from plant tissues partly decomposed by the fungus. To elucidate the flows of carbon and nitrogen in the complicated food-chains within the nests of fungus-growing termites, we determined the stable isotope signatures of different materials sampled from four Macrotermes colonies in southern Kenya. Stable isotopes of carbon revealed that the termite queen and the young larvae are largely sustained by the fungal mycelium. Conversely, all adult workers and soldiers seem to feed predominantly on plant and/or fungus comb material, demonstrating that the fungal symbiont plays a different nutritional role for different termite castes. Nitrogen stable isotopes indicated additional differences between castes and revealed intriguing patterns in colony nitrogen cycling. Nitrogen is effectively recycled within the colonies, but also a presently unspecified nitrogen source, most likely symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, seems to contribute to nitrogen supply. Our results indicate that the gut microbiota of the termite queen might be largely responsible for the proposed nitrogen fixation.

Drywood Pest Termite Cryptotermes brevis (Blattaria: Isoptera: Kalotermitidae): a Detailed Morphological Study of Pseudergates.

The Kalotermitidae Cryptotermes brevis (Walker) presents colonies that lack a true worker caste. They have totipotent worker-like individuals named pseudergates. Few studies have characterized the morphology of immature instars, including pseudergates. In order to identify these instars and characterize the pseudergates, we conducted a comparison between morphometric and morphological variations among immature individuals of C. brevis colonies. Juvenile hormone analog (JHA) was used in the first instar nymphs to induce regressive molts and compare morphological differences between nymphs and pseudergates. Results showed the existence of three larval instars and four nymphal instars. These immatures were morphologically characterized. Individuals classified as third instar larvae presented white body, 10 to 12 antennal articles, absent or small non-pigmented compound eyes, and absence of wing buds. Pseudergates presented pigmented abdomen and sclerotized cuticle, 10 to 12 antennal articles, and absent or small compound eyes, and few specimens had large pigmented compound eyes and absence of wing buds. First instar nymphs had pigmented abdomen and sclerotized cuticle, 10 to 12 antennal articles, both large non-pigmented and pigmented compound eyes, the presence of wing buds. Bioassays using JHA on first instar nymphs resulted in a large percentage of nymph-soldier intercastes. We concluded that abdomen pigmentation and sclerotized cuticle are good characters to differentiate pseudergates from larvae and the absence of wing buds is a good character to differentiate pseudergates from nymphs. Our findings not only contribute to the basic biological and morphological information of this species but also help to identify correctly pseudergates in further studies that involve applied bioassays.

Widespread occurrence of asexual reproduction in higher termites of the Termes group (Termitidae: Termitinae).

BACKGROUND: A decade ago, the mixed reproductive strategy Asexual Queen Succession (AQS) was first described in termites. In AQS species, the workers, soldiers and dispersing reproductives are produced through sexual reproduction, while non-dispersing (neotenic) queens arise through automictic thelytokous parthenogenesis, replace the founding queen and mate with the founding king. As yet, AQS has been documented in six species from three lineages of lower (Rhinotermitidae) and higher (Termitinae: Termes group and Syntermitinae) termites. Independent evolution of the capacity of thelytoky as a preadaptation to AQS is supported by different mechanisms of automixis in each of the three clades. These pioneering discoveries prompt the question on the extent of thelytoky and AQS in the diversified family of higher termites. RESULTS: Here, we investigated the capacity of thelytoky and occurrence of AQS in three species from the phylogenetic proximity of the neotropical AQS species Cavitermes tuberosus (Termitinae: Termes group): Palmitermes impostor, Spinitermes trispinosus, and Inquilinitermes inquilinus. We show that queens of all three species are able to lay unfertilized eggs, which undergo thelytokous parthenogenesis (via gamete duplication as in C. tuberosus) and develop through the transitional stage of aspirants into replacement neotenic queens. CONCLUSIONS: The breeding system in P. impostor is very reminiscent of that described in C. tuberosus and can be characterized as AQS. In the remaining two species, our limited data do not allow classifying the breeding system as AQS; yet, also in these species the thelytokous production of neotenic females appears to be a systematic element of reproductive strategies. It appears likely that the capacity of thelytokous parthenogenesis evolved once in the Termes group, and may ultimately be found more widely, well beyond these Neotropical species.

A comparison of termite assemblages from West African savannah and forest ecosystems using morphological and molecular markers.

Termites (Isoptera) are important ecosystem engineers of tropical ecosystems. However, they are notoriously difficult to identify, which hinders ecological research. To overcome these problems, we comparatively studied termite assemblages in the two major West African ecosystems, savannah and forest, both under natural settings and along disturbance gradients. We identified all species using morphological as well as molecular markers. We hypothesized species richness to be higher in the forest than the savannah and that it declines with disturbance in both ecosystems. Overall we found more species in the forest than in the savannah. However, alpha diversity per site did not differ between both ecosystems with on average around ten species. For both ecosystems, species diversity did not decrease along the studied disturbance gradient but encounter rates did. For the forest, we did not detect a decline in soil feeding termites and an increase of fungus grower Macrotermitinae with disturbance as some other studies did. Yet, soil feeders were generally rare. Strikingly, the set of morphologically difficult-to-identify Macrotermitinae (Microtermes and Ancistrotermes) was as high in the forest as in the savannah with little species overlap between both ecosystems. Using phylogenetic community analyses, we found little evidence for strong structuring mechanisms such as environmental filtering or interspecific competition. Most local assemblages did not differ significantly from random assemblages of the regional species pool. Our study is the most comprehensive of its kind. It provides the most reliable termite species list for West Africa that builds the basis for further ecological studies.

An integrative phylogenomic approach illuminates the evolutionary history of cockroaches and termites (Blattodea).

Phylogenetic relationships among subgroups of cockroaches and termites are still matters of debate. Their divergence times and major phenotypic transitions during evolution are also not yet settled. We addressed these points by combining the first nuclear phylogenomic study of termites and cockroaches with a thorough approach to divergence time analysis, identification of endosymbionts, and reconstruction of ancestral morphological traits and behaviour. Analyses of the phylogenetic relationships within Blattodea robustly confirm previously uncertain hypotheses such as the sister-group relationship between Blaberoidea and remaining Blattodea, and Lamproblatta being the closest relative to the social and wood-feeding Cryptocercus and termites. Consequently, we propose new names for various clades in Blattodea: Cryptocercus + termites = Tutricablattae; Lamproblattidae + Tutricablattae = Kittrickea; and Blattoidea + Corydioidea = Solumblattodea. Our inferred divergence times contradict previous studies by showing that most subgroups of Blattodea evolved in the Cretaceous, reducing the gap between molecular estimates of divergence times and the fossil record. On a phenotypic level, the blattodean ground-plan is for egg packages to be laid directly in a hole while other forms of oviposition, including ovovivipary and vivipary, arose later. Finally, other changes in egg care strategy may have allowed for the adaptation of nest building and other novelties.

A new termite species of the genus Dihoplotermes Araújo (Blattaria, Isoptera, Termitidae) from the Brazilian Amazonian rainforest / Uma nova espécie de térmita do gênero Dihoplotermes Araujo (Blattaria, Isoptera, Termitidae) da floresta Amazônica Brasileira

Dihoplotermes, a previously monotypic genus, is now composed of two species. Dihoplotermes taurus sp. nov., a new Termitinae termite species, is illustrated and described based on morphological characters from soldiers, workers, and imago. The new species is distinguished from Dihoplotermes inusitatus Araujo by having a spine-like protuberance with blunt apex on the postmentum, the presence of a spine on the gizzard and the absence of dimorphic soldiers. Furthermore, the internal morphological characteristics of a Dihoplotermes worker are described for the first time. Both internal and external morphological characters were used to improve the characterization of the species.(AU)

Dihoplotermes, que era um gênero monotípico, agora é composto por duas espécies. Dihoplotermes taurus sp. nov., uma nova espécie de cupim Termitinae, é descrita e ilustrada com base nos caracteres morfológicos dos soldados, operários e imago. A nova espécie se diferencia de Dihoplotermes inusitatus Araujo por apresentar uma protuberância em forma de espinho não pontiagudo no posmento, presença de um espinho na moela e ausência de soldados dimórficos. Além disso, são descritas pela primeira vez as características morfológicas internas de um operário de Dihoplotermes e utilizamos ambos caracteres morfológicos internos e externos para melhor caracterizar as espécies.(AU)

Lagged Population Growth in a Termite Host Colony: Cause or Consequence of Inquilinism?

The presence of foreign organisms in the colonies of social insects could affect energy allocation to growth and reproduction of these hosts. Highly specialized invaders of such long-lived hosts, however, can be selected to be less harmful. After all, it pays for these symbionts to keep their host's good health thereby prolonging cohabitation in the homeostatic environment of the termite colony. Here, we investigated such a hypothesis, focusing on populational parameters of a termite host sharing its nest with an obligatory termite inquiline. To this end, 19 natural colonies of Constrictotermes cyphergaster (Silvestri, 1901) (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae) were sampled and the (i) number of individuals, (ii) proportion of soldier/workers in the colonies, and (iii) presence/absence of obligatory inquiline Inquilinitermes microcerus (Silvestri, 1901) (Termitidae: Termitinae) were measured. Results revealed a negative correlation between the number of individuals and the proportion of soldier/workers in the host colonies with the presence of I. microcerus colonies. In search of causal mechanisms for such a correlation, we inspected life history traits of both, inquilines and hosts, hypothesizing that such a result could indicate either (i) a dampening effect of the inquiline upon its host population or (ii) the coincidence of the moment of inquiline infiltration with the natural reduction of C. cyphergaster populational growth at the onset of its reproductive phase.

The evolution of sociality in termites from cockroaches: A taxonomic and phylogenetic perspective.

Despite multiple studies and advances, sociality still puzzles evolutionary biologists in numerous ways, which might be partly addressed with the advent of sociogenomics. In insects, the majority of sociogenomic studies deal with Hymenoptera, one of the two groups that evolved eusociality with termites. But, to fully grasp the evolution of sociality, studies must obviously not restrict to eusocial lineages. Multiple kinds of social system transitions have been recorded and they all bring complementary insights. For instance, cockroaches, the closest relatives to termites, display a wide range of social interactions and evolved convergently subsocial behaviors (i.e., brood care). In this context, we emphasize the need for natural history, taxonomic, and phylogenetic studies. Natural history studies provide the foundations on which building hypotheses, whereas taxonomy provides the taxa to sample to test these hypotheses, and phylogenetics brings the historical framework necessary to test evolutionary scenarios of sociality evolution.

Soldier-biased gene expression in a subterranean termite implies functional specialization of the defensive caste.

In a termite colony, reproduction is typically monopolized by a small number of sexuals that are supported by reproductively altruistic soldiers and workers. We expect caste differentiation to be associated with clear-cut differences in gene expression, and for these differences to reflect caste function and development. Here, we use RNA-Sequencing to compare the gene expression profiles of sexual nymphs and two non-reproductive helper castes (i.e., workers and soldiers) of the Eastern subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes. We found that of n = 93 genes that are strictly expressed as a function of caste, a majority (78%) show a soldier-specific pattern. This conspicuous soldier-bias in genome-wide expression suggests that this defensively specialized caste is functionally well-differentiated from both the reproductive and the other non-reproductive caste of this species, despite a shared developmental program with workers. Gene ontology analysis supports the notion of functional specialization by soldiers, as soldier-biased gene sets are enriched for novel biological processes. Whether this pattern reflects ancient or more recent bouts of selection for caste novelty at the gene-regulatory level is not known, but because soldiers are sterile and thus have no direct fitness, any selection for novelty must have been mediated indirectly, through reproducing relatives.

Molecular systematics, biogeography, and colony fusion in the European dry-wood termites Kalotermes spp. (Blattodea, Termitoidae, Kalotermitidae).

European dry-wood termites belong to the genus Kalotermes (Kalotermitidae), one of the two termite genera in Europe. Until the recent description of two new species, Kalotermes italicus in Italy and Kalotermes phoenicae in the eastern Mediterranean area, Kalotermes flavicollis was the only taxon known in this region. The presence of additional entities, suggested by morphological and physiological variation observed in K. flavicollis, was supported by molecular studies revealing four distinct genetic lineages: lineage A, K. flavicollis sensu strictu, from the Aegean area to Italy; lineage B, in Tuscany; lineage SC, in Sardinia and Corsica; lineage SF, in southern France. Lineages A and B may form mixed colonies, suggesting hybridization. To draw a more detailed picture of Kalotermes evolution and biogeography in Europe, we analyzed samples from previously unsampled areas, such as Spain and southern Italy, by means of the highly informative cox1/trnL/cox2 mitochondrial DNA marker. Overall, phylogenetic analyses confirmed previously identified lineages and taxa, but widened the distribution of the lineage SC to the mainland and of the lineage SF to Spain and Portugal. Results further provided evidence for the synonymy between lineage B and K. italicus. Species delimitation analysis suggested that the three K. flavicollis lineages, as well as K. italicus, can be separate taxa. Data also suggest a possible interspecific hybridization between K. italicus and both K. flavicollis lineages A and SC.

Phylogeography of Nasutitermes corniger (Isoptera: Termitidae) in the Neotropical Region.

BACKGROUND: The Neotropical Region is known for its biodiversity and ranks third in number of known termite species. However, biogeographic and phylogeographic information of termites of this region is limited compared to other world geographic regions. Nasutitermes corniger is widely distributed in the region and is of considerable economic importance. The goal of this study was to describe the phylogeography of N. corniger in the Neotropical Region, to better understand its evolutionary processes. RESULTS: The sampled populations of N. corniger showed high genetic variation. Results indicated strong geographic structure among N. corniger populations, with most haplotypes not broadly shared among separated locations. Phylogeographic analyses showed a dispersal route for N. corniger from Central America into South America via the Isthmus of Panama, with subsequent dispersal through the highlands east of the Andes and into eastern regions of the continent. The majority of haplotypes were limited in distribution to proximal regions, corresponding to particular biomes (Atlantic Forest, Amazonia, Chaco, Cerrado and Caatinga). CONCLUSIONS: Nasutitermes corniger is suggested to be a good model for biogeographic and phylogeographic studies in the Neotropical Region. This study clarified the phylogeographic history of N. corniger and can contribute to the understanding of biogeographic dispersion processes in the Neotropical Region.