Natural infection by Procyrnea uncinipenis (Nematoda, Habronematidae), a parasite from rheas, an autoctone bird from South America, in emus Dromaius novaehollandiae, a ratite from New Zealand.

The present study reports a natural infection of emus, Dromaius novaehollandiae, by the nematode Procyrnea uncinipenis. Five adult emus from a scientific breeding farm at North Fluminense State University located in the city of Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil were necropsied, and their gastrointestinal tract were collected and examined for the presence of parasites from October 2013 to November 2015. Two of the five (40%) emus necropsied were infected with nematodes, and a portion of the nematodes were processed for light microscopy. In addition, two other nematodes (a male and a female) were prepared for scanning electron microscopy. In a female bird, one nematode was collected in the proventriculus and two nematodes in the gizzard and in the male bird four nematodes were collected in the gizzard. The morphological and morphometric analyzes allowed to identify the nematodes as P. uncinipenis, this being the first report of an infection by P. uncinipenis in emus. Therefore, we infer that these emus were naturally infected by nematodes that were considered specific to rheas.

Development of an in vivo model for Toxoplasma gondii infections in chickens and turkeys simulating natural routes of infection.

Turkeys and chickens were orally infected with tissue cysts (one mouse brain) or oocysts (103, 105 or 106 oocysts) of three T. gondii strains of the clonal types II and III (ME49, CZ-Tiger, NED) to investigate the influence of the applied T. gondii strain and infective doses on the distribution of T. gondii in several organs and tissues and the serologic response of chickens and turkeys. Organ samples from 16 different tissues, including heart, brain, muscles and gizzard were analyzed by PCR. Brain and heart were found most frequently positive for T. gondii DNA in both species, followed by gizzard. Serological analysis with kinetic ELISA for turkey samples and IFAT for chicken samples were performed once a week. In both species a dose-depending serological response was found. Turkeys seroconverted one week after infection with CZ-Tiger strain and medium and high doses of ME49 oocysts. In chickens, infection with medium and high doses of CZ-Tiger led to seroconversion one week p.i. Frequency of T. gondii positive organs showed a trend of a dose-effect in both species after infection with the type II strains. The NED strain showed low virulence in chickens and turkeys, demonstrated by clearly less T. gondii positive organs. Infection with tissue cysts of all three strains revealed T. gondii stages in tissues of turkeys and chickens. In conclusion, our data show a risk for human infection with T. gondii due to consumption of chicken and turkey meat.

Anatomopathological changes, quantification and distribution of Libyostrongylus spp. in regions of the proventriculus and ventriculus of naturally- and experimentally-infected ostriches.

Nematodes of the genus Libyostrongylus parasitize ostriches, causing high mortality rates. These nematodes are found in the proventriculus and ventriculus of ostriches, but little is known about their distribution and the possible anatomopathological changes they cause in the various regions of these organs. This paper describes the distribution and quantification of Libyostrongylus and pathological changes found in regions of the proventriculus and ventriculus of ostriches with high and low levels of both natural and experimental infection. Ostriches were necropsied and tissue samples from the distinct regions of both organs were analysed based on nematode counts and histopathology after staining with haematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome or Alcian blue/PAS. The cranial and glandular regions of the proventriculus were the most parasitized. The ventriculus contained more nematodes in the caudal region. No macro- or microscopic pathological changes were observed in either of these organs of experimentally-infected birds. However, naturally-infected birds with high levels of infection presented proventriculus with macroscopic lesions and heterophilic infiltrates surrounding nematodes. In the glandular region of this organ, nematodes were located in the adenomeres of the secretory ducts, causing altered architecture and erosions and ulcerative lesions with damaged epithelium. Nematode eggs were found in the koilin layer of the middle and caudal regions of the ventriculus only of these birds. The pH of the regions assessed by Alcian blue/PAS staining changed from acidic in the proventriculus to more alkaline in the caudal region of the ventriculus. These data add knowledge to the biology of Libyostrongylus. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS The most parasitized areas were the cranial and glandular regions of the proventriculus. Naturally-infected birds with high levels of infection presented macro lesions in the proventriculus and damaged epithelium. Nematode eggs were found in the ventriculus. The proventriculus had an acidic pH, which turned alkaline towards the ventriculus.

Gizzard Helminths in Female Northern Pintails ( Anas acuta) Wintering Along the Texas Coast.

Gizzard helminths were examined in 100 (50 adult, 50 juvenile) female northern pintails ( Anas acuta). Sixty-three individual helminths, representing 5 species ( Amidostomum acutum, Echinuria uncinata, Epomidiostomum uncinatum, Streptocara crassicauda, and Gastrotaenia cygni) were found. Twenty-seven northern pintails were infected with 1-3 helminth species and averaged 1.4 species. Overall, A. acutum and G. cygni were the most prevalent and abundant species (20%, n = 31 and 10%, n = 25, respectively), followed by S. crassicauda (5%, n = 5), E. uncinata (1%, n = 1), and E. uncinatum (1%, n = 1). Intensity of infection for A. acutum, E. uncinata, E. uncinatum, S. crassicauda, and G. cygni was 1.6 ± 0.3 [SE], 1.0 ± 0, 1.0 ± 0, 1.0 ± 0, and 2.5 ± 0.6, respectively. Our findings represent new information about gizzard helminth infections in northern pintails wintering along the Texas coast.

Effective, appropriate and simple culture, egg hatching and cryopreserving of the nematode Cheilospirura hamulosa.

1. Successful invasion by nematode parasites is associated with several factors including egg hatching at the right time in their hosts. To determine a simple and appropriate medium for culture and egg hatching of the highly pathogenic species of the Acuariidae family, Cheilospirura hamulosa were cultured in three different media. In addition the viability of C. hamulosa eggs was determined after storage in frozen infected gizzards. 2. Eggs removed from the uteri of the female worms in infected gizzards were pooled and washed in distilled water and screened under a stereo dissecting microscope. Eggs were counted and cultured in three different media, nutrient agar, normal saline 0.9% and Bearman, at room temperature. Additionally, 10 infected gizzards were kept at -20°C for 2 and 8 months. 3. After 4-5 d there had been no growth in the nutrient agar medium, whereas 11% of the cultured eggs in the Bearman medium contained larvae 2-3 d after culturing. In 0.9% normal saline medium the two polar knobs appeared on the two poles of the eggs at 2 d post cultivation, and 74% of the eggs contained a larva on the third day. Mature larvae gradually exited from the eggs. 4. Eggs collected from female worms in gizzards frozen at -20°C were cultured in the same three culture media at room temperature. Larvae were visible in the eggs after 2-3 d in the Bearman and 0.9% normal saline media and hatched thereafter. 5. The 0.9% normal saline medium is recommended for egg hatching and cultivation of C. hamulosa due for simplicity, efficacy and cost effectiveness. Moreover, freezing of the infected gizzards at -20°C is proposed for long-term storage of the eggs.

Experimental Toxoplasma gondii oocyst infections in turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo).

Toxoplasma (T.) gondii is a protozoan parasite with a broad range of intermediate hosts. Humans are often infected by ingestion of tissue cysts in raw or undercooked meat or meat products. Turkeys as food-producing animals can also serve as intermediate hosts. The aim of the present study was to investigate occurrence and predilection sites of T. gondii infection in turkeys after oral infection with oocysts. Experimental infections with different doses of T. gondii oocysts were performed in 36 turkeys to mimic natural infection. Systemic distribution of parasitic stages was investigated by screening 14 different tissues including the edible tissues heart, liver, thigh, breast and drumstick muscle. Parasite detection was based on a conventional nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Animals were sacrificed 6-12 weeks after infection. Results demonstrated parasite spreading over the whole organism after oral infection by oocysts. Most frequently affected tissues were brain (47.2% of all brains were positive for T. gondii) and thigh muscle (25.0% positive samples). Other muscles were regularly T. gondii-positive, all other sampled tissues were positive at least once. Thus, edible tissues are one of the predilection sites of T. gondii in turkeys which renders raw or undercooked turkey meat a potential risk for parasite transmission to humans. Data were compared to results from previous parenteral turkey infections with tachyzoites. With the exception of brain, liver and breast muscle affection, no significant differences were observed between both infection routes. Both infection models could be used for research purposes with certain advantages and disadvantages.

Assessing helminth community structure and patterns in gizzard helminths of blue-winged teal (Anas discors).

Helminth community structure (prevalence and abundance) and patterns (associations and distributions) of gizzard worms were examined in blue-winged teal (Anas discors) migrating through south Texas to their wintering grounds (n = 50) and as they migrated back to their breeding grounds (n = 50). Three species of nematodes (Amidostomum acutum, Epomidiostomum uncinatum, and Streptocara crassicauda) and 1 species of cestode (Gastrotaenia cygni) were recovered, representing 1,164 helminth individuals. Amidostomum acutum was the most prevalent (92%) and abundant (817 individuals; 70% of total worms), while G. cygni was the least prevalent (16%) and abundant (23 individuals; 2%). Ninety-eight blue-winged teal were infected with 1 to 4 species. Amidostomum acutum and E. uncinatum were the most frequently (45%) observed association of 2 or more species, followed by A. acutum, E. uncinatum, and S. crassicauda (19%), and A. acutum and S. crassicauda (14%). Significant positive correlations were mainly between A. acutum and E. uncinatum, whereas negative correlations were found between each of these 2 species and S. crassicauda. Prevalence and abundance of A. acutum and S. crassicauda were not influenced by season, host age, or host sex. However, E. uncinatum varied by season and host age. The percent similarity index indicated a relatively consistent component community pattern of high similarity irrespective of season, host age, and sex. The same helminth species were found in both fall and spring, indicating that other helminth species were not being acquired on the wintering grounds.

The role of an attenuated anticoccidial vaccine on the intestinal ecosystem and on the pathogenesis of experimental necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of an attenuated anticoccidial vaccination on the intestinal ecosystem and on the pathogenesis of experimental necrotic enteritis (NE) in broiler chickens. Two hundred and forty 1-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chickens were randomly allocated to four treatment groups according to the following experimental design: control Group N; Group PN, where birds were vaccinated with anticoccidial vaccine; Group M, where birds were challenged with Clostridium perfringens and with Eimeria maxima; and Group PM, where birds were both vaccinated and challenged. From each bird, the intestine, gizzard and liver were scored for gross NE lesions. Intestinal digesta were collected for pH and viscosity determination. Samples from the gastrointestinal tract and liver were taken for microbiological analysis. Evaluation of the experimental data revealed that Group M had significantly higher overall mean NE intestinal lesions compared with Group PM. Viscosity values of jejunum digesta as well as pH values of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum digesta in Group M were significantly lower compared with Group PM. C. perfringens counts in the caeca of Group PM were significantly lower compared with Group M. The milder decrease of pH and viscosity values of intestinal content and the reduction of C. perfringens counts in the caeca in challenged and vaccinated birds may explain the lower score of NE gross intestinal lesions and may suggest a positive effect on intestinal ecosystem and a significant protective effect of attenuated anticoccidial vaccination against NE in a subclinical experimental model.

Mixed infection with Libyostrongylus dentatus and Libyostrongylus douglassii induces a heterophilic inflammatory infiltrate in the proventriculus of ostriches.

Libyostrongylus dentatus and Libyostrongylus douglassii are haematophagous nematodes found in the proventriculus and the ventriculus of ostriches. Pathological damage leading to bird death has been attributed to L. douglassii. However, histopathology of the mixed infection has not been reported. The aim of the present work was to characterize the cellular inflammatory infiltrate found in the proventriculus of ostriches with a mixed infection. Analysis of the collected nematodes confirmed a mixed infection in the proventriculus of examined birds. Histopathological examination of the proventriculus showed an inflammatory infiltrate composed of granular cells in close proximity to the nematodes. The granulocyte infiltrate was composed mainly of heterophils identified by the lack of peroxidase and presence of fusiform granules.

Parasitic ventriculitis caused by Hadjelia truncata in California rock pigeons (Columba livia).

Severe ventriculitis and emaciation caused by the infestation of the nematode Hadjelia truncata occurred in meat-type breeder rock pigeons (Columba livia) in southern and central California. Hadjelia truncata can infest several species of birds, although it has only been reported as pathogenic in pigeons. The factors that contribute to H. truncata pathogenicity are not known. The gross and microscopic pathology caused by the infestation of H. truncata in the ventriculus of pigeons and its morphological identification are presented.

Prevalence and the associated lesions of Cheilospirura (Acuaria) hamulosa in the indigenous chicken of Kashmir Valley, India.

The present investigation reports the results from a 2-yr study conducted on the prevalence and associated lesions of the nematode Cheilospirura (Acuaria) hamulosa (Nematoda, Acuarioidea) in a sample size of 478 indigenous fowl collected from different localities of Kashmir Valley, India. The investigation revealed the annual prevalence for the nematode for the first and second yr of study to be 3.4% (8/233) and 3.7% (9/245), respectively, with an overall prevalence of 3.5% (17/478). Parasitized birds did not present with clinical signs. Despite the low parasite burdens, the lesions induced by C. hamulosa were severe. Histological examination of the infected gizzard revealed discrete and coalescing nodular and cystic lesions in the mucosa and musculature which contained sections of the parasite. Cellular reaction in the lesions was characterized by a large number of lymphocytes, monocytes, plasma cells, heterophils, and, in some of the sections, severe eosinophilic reaction. The mucosa and submucosa showed markedly thickened and diffuse mononuclear infiltration as well as reactive lymphoid nodules.

Disseminated visceral coccidiosis in a wild white-naped crane (Grus vipio).

Disseminated visceral coccidiosis (DVC) was unexpectedly recognized in a wild white-naped crane (Grus vipio) killed by phosphamidon insecticide. On gross pathologic examination, widely disseminated white nodules were found on the serosa of the pro-ventriculus, gizzard, and intestine, as well as on the surface and in the parenchyma of liver, spleen, and cardiac muscle. Microscopically, asexual stages of a coccidia were observed in some nodules. However, the species of coccidia could not be determined because no oocysts were found on fecal examination. This is believed to be the first reported case of DVC in a wild white-naped crane infected with Eimeria spp.

Gizzard spirurid nematode Acuaria skrjabini in Japanese tree sparrows and a gray starling from Tokyo.

Gastrointestinal helminths were collected from 49 Japanese tree sparrows (Passer montanus saturatus) in Tokyo, Japan. In 16 sparrows, 1-9 (average, 3.5) gizzard spirurid nematodes (Acuaria skrjabini Ozerskaya, 1926) were found embedded in the mucosa of the gizzard. In addition, Capillaria sp., Platynosomum passeri Yamashita et Tsumura, 1962, and a hymenolepidid cestode were collected from 1, 2, and 1 sparrows, respectively. A sexually mature A. skrjabini female and 3 males were found also in a young gray starling (Sturnus cineraceus) that was found dead in the same area after failure to leave the nest. Starlings are a new host record for this spirurid species. Until this study, this gizzard spirurid species has not been recorded in this country or the Far East region.

Parhadjelia cairinae n. sp. (Nematoda: Habronematoidea: Habronematidae) in the Muscovy duck, Cairina moschata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Aves: Anseriformes: Anatidae), from the area de conservacion Guanacaste, Costa Rica.

A new species of Parahadjelia occurs in the muscovy duck, Cairina moschata (Linnaeus, 1758), from the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste, Costa Rica. The new species differs from Parhadjelia neglecta Lent and Freitas, 1939, in the body size, in the spicules shape and ratio of spicules, and in having 2 pairs of sessile papillae near the tail tip of the male. The characters exhibited by P. neglecta and the new species validate its generic status distinct from Hadjelia.

Observations on helminth infections of free-living and captive rheas (Rhea americana) in Brazil.

The present work describes helminth infection of eight free-living and 12 captive rheas (Rhea americana) from, respectively, Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul State, and Jaboticabal, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Captive birds were young and had a high mortality rate, while free-living birds were adult and apparently healthy. Infections were evaluated by post-mortem examination of internal organs and recovery of helminths using standard parasitological procedures. Seven species of nematodes (Sicarius uncinipenis, Torquatoides crotophaga, Deletrocephalus dimidiatus, D. cesarpintoi, Paradeletrocephalus minor, Capillaria venteli and Dicheilonema rheae) and two species of cestodes (Houttuynia struthionis and Chapmania tauricolis) were identified. P. minor, which inhabits the large intestine, was the most common helminth in free-living birds (63.9%). In captive rheas, a mean parasitic load of 173 helminths per host was found. The gizzard of these birds was the most parasitized organ and S. uncinipenis was most common (92.5%). Parasitism of free-living and captive birds and associated pathology are discussed.

Torquatoides trogoni n. sp. and Excisa ramphastina n. sp. (Nematoda: Habronematoidea: Habronematidae) in birds from the area de Conservacion Guanacaste, Costa Rica.

Two new species of habronematid nematodes are described in birds from the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Torquatoides trogoni n. sp., in Trogon massena, can be distinguished from T. torquata, T. bengalensis, and T. crotophaga in lacking lateral alae. Among species lacking lateral alae, the new species differs from T. balanocephala in having 14 versus 8-10 cephalic cuticular plaques, 21-22 versus 13-17 pairs of preanal papillae, and a beak-shaped versus U-shaped gubernaculum. The new species differs from T. singhi in body length, in having 21-22 versus 10 pairs of precloacal papillae, longer spicules, and larger eggs. The new species differs from T. crotophaga, the only other species known from Central America, in lacking lateral alae, and having 14 versus 6 cephalic cuticular plaques, 21-22 versus 17 pairs of precloacal and 3 versus 2 pairs of postcloacal papillae, and a gubernaculum. Excisa ramphastina n. sp., in Ramphastos sulfuratus, can be distinguished from E. excisa, E. biloba, E. buckleyi, E. dentifera, and E. khalili in having 1 lateral ala versus none, cervical papillae anterior versus posterior to the nerve ring, and asymmetrical caudal alae. Excisa ramphastina is similar to E. curvata in having cervical papillae anterior to the nerve ring but differs in having 1 lateral ala versus none, asymmetrical caudal alae, an average spicule ratio of 1:4.4 versus 1:3.3, and 4 versus 2 pairs of sessile papillae. The new species differs from E. columbi in having 1 versus 2 lateral alae, in the length of the spicules, in having a different spicule ratio, and in the numbers of sessile papillae.

A new species of Syncuaria Gilbert, 1927 (Nematoda: Acuarioidea: Acuariidae) in the wood stork, Mycteria americana L. (Aves: Ciconiiformes: Ciconiidae) from the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste, Costa Rica.

Syncuaria mycteriae n. sp. (Nematoda: Acuarioidea) was collected under the lining of the gizzard of a wood stork, Mycteria americana L., from the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste, Costa Rica. The new species can be distinguished from all known species of Syncuaria by having irregular dotted ornamentations on the caudal alae of males, a complex distal end of the left spicule comprising 3 protuberances, and a spicule ratio of 1:9.3. Preliminary phylogenetic analysis of 11 Syncuaria spp. based on 9 morphological characters produced 2 equally parsimonious cladograms with a consistency index of 85%, differing only in the placement of S. hargilae. The phylogenetic analysis suggests that the new species is the sister species of S. leptoptili, whose male members have a single protuberance on the left spicule. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that the plesiomorphic host group for the genus is Ciconiiformes, specifically Ciconiidae (host for 5 species), with 2 species occurring in Threskiornithidae (also Ciconiiformes), possibly as a result of cospeciation, and 2 species each occurring in Pelecaniformes and Podicipediformes, resulting from 4 episodes of speciation by host switching.

Two species of Acuaria Bremser, 1811 (Nematoda: Acuarioidea: Acuariidae) in passerine birds from the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste, Costa Rica.

Two species of Acuaria were collected from passerine birds from the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Acuaria mayori Lent, Freitas and Proenca, 1945, was collected from Myiarchus nuttingi. Specimens from Costa Rica differ from the original description by having a spicule ratio of 1:1.5-1.7 versus 1:1.43-1.47, as well as shorter spicules and female tails. Acuaria wangi n. sp. in Hylophylax naevioides and Gymnopithys leucaspis resembles A. alii, A. crami, A. cyanocitta, A. minuta, A. pattoni, and A. cissae by having cordons extending posteriorly to the anterior portion of the glandular esophagus. The new species differs from A. alii by having 4 pairs of preanal and 6 pairs of postanal papillae rather than 2 pairs of preanal and 7 pairs of postanal papillae, a shorter left spicule, a spicule ratio of 1:1.6-1.8 versus 1:1.1 and in having spicules with blunt rather than pointed distal ends. Acuaria crami and A. minuta differ from A. wangi by having 7 pairs of postanal papillae and spicule ratios of 1:1.6-1.8 versus 1:1.3 in A. crami and 1:1.1 in A. minuta; in addition, A. minuta has spatulate-shaped spicules and a tricupsid-shaped distal end of the right spicule. The new species can be distinguished from A. pattoni by having a longer left spicule and a spicule ratio of 1:1.6-1.8 versus 1:1 and from A. cissae by having a shorter left spicule and a spicule ratio of 1:1.6-1.8 versus 1:2.5-2.7. Acuaria wangi is similar to A. cyanocitta, which has similarly shaped spicules, including a very pointed distal end of the left spicule, but differs in body length, in having shorter spicules, in the arrangement of postanal papillae, and in having smaller eggs.

Correlates of helminth community in the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa L.) in Spain.

Between 1992 and 1996, 587 wild red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) from 16 Spanish provinces were examined to study the variations of helminth communities in this game species across a broad geographical area. The survey revealed 13 species of helminth parasites. Dicrocoelium sp.. Rhabdometra nigropunctata, and Cheilospirura gruweli were the most common species, whereas Raillietina bolivari, Choanotaenia infundibulum, Tetrameres sp., and Capillaria anatis were the most rare. Subulura suctoria, Heterakis gallinarum, Heterakis tenuicaudata, Capillaria contorta, Trichostrongylus tenuis, and Raillietina tetragona occurred with intermediate frequencies. The abundance of C. gruweli, S. suctoria, H. tenuicaudata, T. tenuis, and R. tetragona was inversely correlated to latitude and directly correlated to yearly mean temperature, whereas the abundance of Dicrocoelium sp. was directly correlated to latitude and inversely correlated to yearly mean temperature. The abundance of R. tetragona was inversely correlated to latitude and yearly mean humidity. The number of helminths per partridge and the number of helminth species per partridge were lower in young birds than in adults. Partridge body condition was inversely correlated to abundance of C. contorta. Richer infracommunities were linked to richer component communities. At the infracommunity level, total number of helminths per partridge and number of helminth species per partridge were inversely correlated to latitude and directly correlated to yearly mean temperature. At the component community level, both species richness and diversity (Simpson's index) were inversely correlated to latitude and directly correlated to mean temperature. Across the broad geographical range of the study area, the helminth parasite communities of red-legged partridges had marked geographical variation in their structure. Our results suggest that this variation is determined by the distribution of both intermediate and definitive hosts. We discuss the implications of this variation for the hypothesis that supplementary releases of captive-bred partridges for sport hunting can affect the helminth fauna of wild red-legged partridges.