Prevalence and risk factors of Linguatula spp. in slaughter animals in Tabriz, Iran, and methods for nymphal stage inactivation.

Linguatula is a food born zoonotic parasite in which carnivores and herbivores serve as final and intermediate hosts, respectively. Human infection with Linguatula spp. occurs following consumption of raw or undercooked infected internal organs of the intermediate host and/or consumption of water and/or vegetables contaminated with eggs released from final hosts. The aim of this study was to determine prevalence and risk factors of Linguatula spp. in sheep, cattle, buffalo, goats and camels slaughtered at the Tabriz abattoir, Iran. In addition, effect of temperature and sodium chloride (NaCl) on survival time of Linguatula spp. nymphs was assessed. For this purpose, 25,520 mesenteric lymph nodes from 2552 animals and the livers and lungs from 656 animals were collected randomly and examined. To evaluate the effect of temperature and NaCl on the survival of Linguatula spp. nymphs in infected livers and lungs, 30 g of each liver and lung with dimensions of 2 × 3 × 4 cm, were exposed to temperatures of -20, 10, 50, 60 and 72 °C and NaCl concentrations of 5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20 % for 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h, in triplicate. Based on the mesenteric lymph nodes, 25.7 % (656 of 2552 animals) were infected with Linguatula spp. Of the 656 liver and lungs assessed, 141 (21.5 %) and 62 (9.5 %) were infected with Linguatula spp., respectively. The rate of infection of mesenteric lymph nodes in all animals was significant with age (P < 0.05), with more older animals infected. In regards to sex, except for camels, more female animals were infected than male animals (P < 0.05). There was a significant difference in survival of nymphs based on temperature and/or NaCl and time (P < 0.0001). At 72 h, all temperatures assessed except 10 °C, resulted in all nymphs being inactivated. Sodium chloride was more effective against Linguatula spp. nymphs in livers than in lungs with 100 % efficacy only achieved against nymphs in livers at 20 % concentration after 48 h and at 10 and 15 % concentration after 72 h. Based on these results, heating and application of common salt as a food preservative in meat products reduces the survival time of Linguatula spp. nymphs and their use could decrease the risk of food-born microorganisms.

A Preliminary Study on the Antigenic Proteins of Linguatula serrata Nymphal Stage in Sheep with Visceral Linguatulosis.

Scant information is available on the immunological aspect of Linguatula serrata causing linguatulosis in humans and animals. The present study aimed to analyze the content of crude somatic extracts and excretory-secretory products of L. serrata nymphs to detect the immune response of sheep and immunogenic proteins of the parasite. After collecting the nymphs, somatic extracts were prepared by sonication. Excretory secretory products were prepared by the incubation of nymphs in RPMI medium at 37°C with 5% CO2. Somatic and excretory-secretory proteins were isolated using SDS-PAGE. The immunogenic properties of the resulting proteins were determined using immunoblotting and positive sera from sheep infected with visceral linguatulosis. The total content of somatic extracts and excretory-secretory products of L. serrata nymphs analyzed by SDS-PAGE (12% gel) revealed two protein patterns with more than 18 and 9 strong bands, respectively. Immunoblots using sera samples of sheep infected with the parasite, somatic extracts and excretory-secretory products demonstrated 12 and 3 antigenic proteins with molecular weights mostly in the range of 24-100 kDa and an antigen more than 180 kDa. Three common immunodominant antigenic proteins with molecular weights of 38 and 57, as well as an antigen of more than 180 kDa, were detected in the somatic extracts and excretory-secretory products of L. serrata nymphs in sheep with visceral linguatulosis. These antigens can be considetered prime candidates for future serodiagnosis and immunoprotective studies of the parasite.

Linguatula serrata in cattle in southeastern Iran: Epidemiological, histopathological and phylogenetic profile and its zoonotic importance.

This study aimed to determine the prevalence, histopathological observations, and phylogenetic analysis of L. serrata in cattle and its potential zoonotic and public health implications in southeastern Iran.The cross-sectional study was performed in cattle in southeastern Iran. Lymph nodes were collected from each cattle and examined by parasitological and histopathological techniques. A binary logistic regression and chi-square tests were implemented to analyze the data. Genomic DNA was randomly extracted from the nymphal stages of Linguatula isolates. Further characterization and phylogenetic relationships were done using two primers for amplification of partial DNA fragments of 18 s rRNA and cytochrome C oxidase subunit 1 (cox1), respectively.The results showed that 64 cattle of the total 404 were infected with L. serrata. There was no significant difference between linguatulosis infection and gender, while age was significantly different (P < 0.05). The cyst-like spaces containing the longitudinal and transverse sections of the L. serrata nymphs were surrounded by granulomatous reactions. The higher nucleotide variation in the cox1 region was supported by estimating the evolutionary divergence between L. serrata isolates and other Linguatula records of ruminants in Iran. The phylogenetic tree confirmed the close evolutionary relationships among all reported records of L. serrata in Iran.The high prevalence of linguatulosis caused by L. serrata declares the existence of a potential risk of FBPs for humans in southeastern Iran. This condition can advance more serious public health problems and requires a comprehensive control program and treatment strategies to prevent the disease.

Threat of exotic worms in dogs imported from Romania.

More and more dogs are legally entering the UK from overseas, bringing with them the risk of importing unusual parasites, some of which are zoonotic. Here, Ian Wright and colleagues describe three cases of parasitic worms found in Romanian dogs.

Severe infection caused by nymphs of Armillifer armillatus (Pentastomida, Porocephalidae) in a leopard, Panthera pardus, in the Kruger National Park, South Africa.

The necropsy of an adult male leopard, Panthera pardus, shot in the Kruger National Park, revealed the presence of large numbers of Armillifer armillatus nymphs in the intestine, liver, spleen, mesentery, peritoneal fold, mediastinum and lungs. The animal had been observed to be blind in the right eye and severely debilitated. The infection with A. armillatus clearly contributed to its emaciation and anaemia. Armillifer armillatus is a parasite of snakes, using mammals that form part of the snakes' prey as intermediate hosts. It is also one of the pentastomids with the highest zoonotic potential in Africa. It is unclear if the leopard's partial blindness and injuries of its extremities forced it to forego larger prey items for easier prey, such as snakes, and this in turn led to exposure to this unusual parasite, or if he had simply developed a preference for snakes. The incidental finding of A. armillatus in a large carnivore emphasises the importance of necropsies in expanding our knowledge on wildlife diseases.

Pathological characteristics of Linguatula serrata (aberrant arthropod) infestation in sheep and factors associated with prevalence in Iran.

Linguatula serrata is a cosmopolitan zoonotic parasite in which carnivores and herbivores serve as final and intermediate hosts, respectively. The aim of this study was to compare the L. serrata nymphal infection rate and intensity of infection (mean number of nymphs ±â€¯standard error) to the appearance and pathological changes of mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) infected with L. serrata using sheep slaughtered in Tabriz, Iran. In addition, the effect of age, sex, and season on the prevalence of L. serrata infection was evaluated. For this purpose, over a four-year period, 31,078 MLNs from 3199 sheep were examined, with 4972 (15.99%) MLNs infected representing 518 (16.20%) sheep. Collected MLNs were categorized by color as normal, red or black and by consistency as normal, soft or hard. L. serrata were found in 8.88% of normal-colored MLNs, 14.45% of red (hemorrhagic) MLNs and 44.57% of black-colored MLNs, with the difference being significant for infection and infection intensity (P < 0.0001). In regards to MLN consistency, 7.98% of normal, 31.52% of soft and 5.42% of hard lymph nodes were found to be infected with the infection rate and intensity in soft nodes being significantly different (P < 0.0001). Pathological changes in MLNs infected with L. serrata nymph with normal color and consistency had calcification of the L. serrata nymph, granulomatous inflammation around the nymph and some neutrophils. Granulomatous inflammation around the L. serrata nymph, haemosiderophage, macrophage and lymph node depletion from lymphocytes were observed in MLNs infected with L. serrata nymph with soft consistency. In addition, MLNs infected with L. serrata nymph with hard consistency and black color contained neutrophils in the capsule's wall, caseous necrotic mass and L. serrata surrounded by a thick capsule. In regards to prevalence, age, sex and season (autumn) were significant (P < 0.0001, P < 0.01, respectively). These study results suggest that targeted meat inspection and targeted animal interventions could be used to decrease human exposure to L. serrata and animal infection.

Host-specific phenotypic variation of a parasite co-introduced with invasive Burmese pythons.

Invasive Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus Kuhl, 1820) have introduced a lung parasite, Raillietiella orientalis, (Hett, 1915) from the python's native range in Southeast Asia to its introduced range in Florida, where parasite spillover from pythons to two families and eight genera of native snakes has occurred. Because these novel host species present a diversity of ecological and morphological traits, and because these parasites attach to their hosts with hooks located on their cephalothorax, we predicted that R. orientalis would exhibit substantial, host-associated phenotypic plasticity in cephalothorax shape. Indeed, geometric morphometric analyses of 39 parasites from five host species revealed significant variation among host taxa in R. orientalis cephalothorax shape. We observed differences associated with host ecology, where parasites from semi-aquatic and aquatic snakes exhibited the greatest morphological similarity. Morphological analyses of R. orientalis recovered from invasive pythons, native pit vipers, and terrestrial snakes each revealed distinct shapes. Our results suggest R. orientalis can exhibit significant differences in morphology based upon host species infected, and this plasticity may facilitate infection with this non-native parasite in a wide array of novel squamate host species.

Raillietiella mottae (Pentastomida: Raillietiellidae) infecting Ameiva ameiva (Squamata: Teiidae) in Araripe Plateau, Northeast Brazil / Raillietiella mottae (Pentastomida: Raillietiellidae) infectando Ameiva ameiva (Squamata: Teiidae) na Chapada do Araripe, Nordeste, Brasil

Abstract We investigated the infection by pulmonary parasites in the lizard Ameiva ameiva (Teiidae) inhabiting the Environmental Protection Area of Araripe (APA-Araripe). A total of 45 specimens were collected in three areas between the cities of Várzea Alegre and Barbalha. A Pentastomid species (Raillietiella mottae) was parasitizing (nine specimens) a male of A. ameiva with a prevalence of 2.22% considering all lizards collected in the region and prevalence of 50% considering only rainforest environment. The Pentastomids infection rates shown in this study are similar to data found for infections of other insectivorous lizards. Raillietiella mottae is considered a generalist parasite, which uses insects as intermediate hosts. The results of this study represent the first record of a Pentastomid infecting this species of lizard in South America.

Resumo Neste estudo investigamos a infecção por parasitas pulmonares no lagarto teiídeo Ameiva ameiva (Teiidae) habitando a Área de Proteção Ambiental do Araripe - APA Araripe. Um total de 45 espécimes foram coletados em três áreas entre os municípios de Várzea Alegre e Barbalha. Uma espécie de pentastomida (Raillietiella mottae) estava parasitando (nove espécimes) um macho de A. ameiva com uma prevalência de 2,22%, considerando todos os lagartos da região, e uma prevalência de 50% considerando apenas a floresta úmida. A taxa de infecção por pentastomídeos demonstrado no presente estudo é semelhante aos dados de infecção encontrados para outros lagartos insetívoros. Raillietiella mottae é considerado um parasita generalista, que usa insetos como hospedeiros intermediários. O resultado do presente estudo representa o primeiro registro de um pentastomídeo infectando lagartos do gênero Ameiva na América do Sul.

Raillietiella mottae (Pentastomida: Raillietiellidae) infecting Ameiva ameiva (Squamata: Teiidae) in Araripe Plateau, Northeast Brazil.

We investigated the infection by pulmonary parasites in the lizard Ameiva ameiva (Teiidae) inhabiting the Environmental Protection Area of Araripe (APA-Araripe). A total of 45 specimens were collected in three areas between the cities of Várzea Alegre and Barbalha. A Pentastomid species (Raillietiella mottae) was parasitizing (nine specimens) a male of A. ameiva with a prevalence of 2.22% considering all lizards collected in the region and prevalence of 50% considering only rainforest environment. The Pentastomids infection rates shown in this study are similar to data found for infections of other insectivorous lizards. Raillietiella mottae is considered a generalist parasite, which uses insects as intermediate hosts. The results of this study represent the first record of a Pentastomid infecting this species of lizard in South America.

A behavioral evaluation of the effects of ingestion of Linguatula serrata nymphs in rats.

Nasopharyngeal linguatuliasis known as Halzoun or Marrara syndrome occurs following ingestion of raw or undercooked viscera, including lymph nodes, liver and lung of infected animals. The present study was aimed to investigate the behavioral changes induced by ingestion of Linguatula serrata nymphs in rats. For this purpose, 24 rats were divided into four groups and orally ingested with 0 (control), 15, 30 and 60 L. serrata nymphs, respectively. Sneezing, mouth and tongue movements and mouth opening numbers were counted and the duration of mouth and nose grooming was measured at 10-min blocks for 30 min. Ingestion of 0 (normal saline) number of nymph produced negligible behaviors, whereas 15, 30 and 60 numbers of nymphs increased the above-mentioned behaviors when compared to normal saline (0 nymph) group. In this context, 60 number of nymphs produced more behavioral changes than 15 nymphs. We concluded that ingestion of L. serrata nymphs can produce behavioral changes in orofacial area in rats.

Unexpected Infection with Armillifer Parasites.

Visceral pentastomiasis is usually found incidentally during surgery. We describe a case of visceral pentastomiasis discovered during inguinoscrotal hernia surgery for a man from Benin, Africa. Because surgical removal of nymphs is needed for symptomatic patients only, this patient's asymptomatic pentastomiasis was not treated and he recovered from surgery uneventfully.

Morphological and Molecular Assessment of Pentastomes from Gulls in Portugal.

During 2016, 153 gulls, including 64 Larus fuscus and 89 Larus michahellis, were found crippled in south Portugal. They died in Wildlife Rehabilitation and Investigation Center-RIAS and were necropsied. Reighardia sternae infected 2 (3%, n = 64) L. fuscus and 4 (4%, n = 89) L. michahellis. Molecular analysis confirmed the morphological identification on the basis of total body length, maximum body width, length of anterior and posterior hooks, total length of oral apparatus, and other features of oral apparatus of R. sternae. Both sequenced individuals in this study displayed 100% sequence identity to R. sternae individuals obtained previously from Larus ridibundus in Spain and to Reighardia sp. from Larus belcheri in Peru. Reighardia sternae is reported here for the first time in L. michahellis and for the first time from Portugal.

Visceral pentastomiasis caused by Armillifer armillatus in a captive striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) in Chiang Mai Night Safari, Thailand.

Visceral pentastomiasis (porocephalosis) caused by Armillifer armillatus larvae was incidentally diagnosed in a female striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) of unknown age which died unexpectedly in 2013. The hyena had been imported from Tanzania 8years earlier and have been since then in a zoo in Chiang Mai, northern Thailand. Pathological examination revealed visceral nymph migrans of pentastomes throughout the intestine, liver, diaphragm, omentum and mesentery, spleen, kidneys, and urinary bladder. Polymerase chain reaction and sequencing that targeted the pentastomid-specific 18S rRNA gene determined 100% identity with reference sequence for A. armillatus, suggesting that its ova can infect the hyena to serve as an intermediate host for the parasite. Further studies to identify the source of infection, its risk factors, and host range for A. armillatus are important to determine its zoonotic potential and to better prevent and manage the disease to protect animal and human health.

Physiological Status Drives Metabolic Rate in Mediterranean Geckos Infected with Pentastomes.

Negative effects of parasites on their hosts are well documented, but the proximate mechanisms by which parasites reduce their host's fitness are poorly understood. For example, it has been suggested that parasites might be energetically demanding. However, a recent meta-analysis suggests that they have statistically insignificant effects on host resting metabolic rate (RMR). It is possible, though, that energetic costs associated with parasites are only manifested during and/or following periods of activity. Here, we measured CO2 production (a surrogate for metabolism) in Mediterranean geckos (Hemidactylus turcicus) infected with a lung parasite, the pentastome Raillietiella indica, under two physiological conditions: rested and recently active. In rested geckos, there was a negative, but non-significant association between the number of pentastomes (i.e., infection intensity) and CO2 production. In recently active geckos (chased for 3 minutes), we recorded CO2 production from its maximum value until it declined to a stationary phase. We analyzed this decline as a 3 phase function (initial decline, secondary decline, stationary). Geckos that were recently active showed, in the secondary phase, a significant decrease in CO2 production as pentastome intensity increased. Moreover, duration of the secondary phase showed a significant positive association with the number of pentastomes. These results suggest that the intensity of pentastome load exerts a weak effect on the metabolism of resting geckos, but a strong physiological effect on geckos that have recently been active; we speculate this occurs via mechanical constraints on breathing. Our results provide a potential mechanism by which pentastomes can reduce gecko fitness.

First record of Porocephalus cf. clavatus (Pentastomida: Porocephalida) as a parasite on Bothrops asper (Squamata: Viperidae) in Costa Rica.

Pentastomids are parasites that infect respiratory cavities of vertebrates, they are pretty common but poorly known in wildlife veterinary. A Bothrops asper snake (Garman, 1884) was captured in the Caribbean region of Costa Rica and had its lung infested with pentastomids, identified as ca Porocephalus clavatus (Wyman, 1845). This represents the first record of Porocephalus (Humboldt, 1812) on B. asper as well as P. cf. clavatus in Costa Rica. Further studies are needed to clarify their taxonomic position, images and scanning electron microscopy photographs (SEM) of the specimens are given.

First record of Porocephalus cf. clavatus (Pentastomida: Porocephalida) as a parasite on Bothrops asper (Squamata: Viperidae) in Costa Rica / Primeiro registro de Porocephalus cf. clavatus (Pentastomida: Porocephalida) como um parasita em Bothrops asper (Squamata: Viperidae) na Costa Rica

Abstract Pentastomids are parasites that infect respiratory cavities of vertebrates, they are pretty common but poorly known in wildlife veterinary. A Bothrops asper snake (Garman, 1884) was captured in the Caribbean region of Costa Rica and had its lung infested with pentastomids, identified as ca Porocephalus clavatus (Wyman, 1845). This represents the first record of Porocephalus (Humboldt, 1812) on B. asper as well as P. cf. clavatus in Costa Rica. Further studies are needed to clarify their taxonomic position, images and scanning electron microscopy photographs (SEM) of the specimens are given.

Resumo Pentastomídeos sâo parasitas que infectam as cavidades respiratórias dos vertebrados, eles são bastante comuns, mas pouco conhecido nos animais silvestres. Uma Bothrops asper (Garman, 1884) foi capturada na região do Caribe da Costa Rica e teve seu pulmão infestado de pentastomídeos, identificados como ca Porocephalus clavatus (Wyman, 1845). Isto representa o primeiro registro de Porocephalus (Humboldt, 1812) em B. asper, assim como P. cf. clavatus na Costa Rica. Mais estudos detalhados são necessários para esclarecer sua posição taxonómica. Imagens e fotografias de microscopia electrónica de varredura (MEV) dos espécimes são dadas.

Size and sex matter: infection dynamics of an invading parasite (the pentastome Raillietiella frenatus) in an invading host (the cane toad Rhinella marina).

Correlations between host phenotype and vulnerability to parasites can clarify the processes that enhance rates of parasitism, and the effects of parasites on their hosts. We studied an invasive parasite (the pentastome Raillietiella frenatus, subclass Pentastomida, order Cephalobaenida) infecting a new host (the invasive cane toad Rhinella marina), in tropical Australia. We dissected toads over a 27-month period to investigate seasonal changes in pentastome population dynamics and establish which aspects of host phenotype are related to infection. Pentastome prevalence and intensity varied seasonally; male toads were 4 times more likely to be infected than were females; and prevalence was highest in hosts of intermediate body size. The strong sex effect may reflect habitat or dietary divergence between the sexes, resulting in males encountering parasites more often. The relationship between pentastome prevalence and host size likely reflects a role for acquired immunity in preventing re-infection. Infection did not influence host body condition (fatbody size), suggesting that R. frenatus does not impose high energy costs in cane toads. Infected toads had heavier spleens (likely an immune response to infection) and larger testes (perhaps since reproductively active hosts have altered microhabitat use and/or immunocompetence) than did uninfected conspecifics. Although experimental studies are required to identify the causal bases of such patterns, our data confirm that infection status within a population can be strongly linked to host phenotypic traits.

[Progress of research on clinical manifestations and diagnosis of human pentastomiasis].

Human pentastomiasis is an unusual parasitic zoonosis caused by wormlike pentastomids. Of the many pentastome species, 10 are known to infect humans in the world, and among them, Armillifer armillatus and Linguatula serrata are the main pathogenic species which can account for most human infections. According to the location in human body and clinical symptoms of the main pathogenic species, human pentastomiasis can be divided into two parasitic types clinically, the visceral type and nasopharyngeal type. The methods for diagnosing pentastomiasis is based on the morphology, histopathological and imageology examinations combined with clinical manifestations and epidemiology, but the relational serological and molecular tests are rarely reported. In this article, we aim to provide a basic review of human pentastomiasis on the pathogen, clinical manifestations, endemic areas and primary diagnostic methods.