Delayed trophic response of a marine predator to ocean condition and prey availability during the past century.

Understanding the response of predators to ecological change at multiple temporal scales can elucidate critical predator-prey dynamics that would otherwise go unrecognized. We performed compound-specific nitrogen stable isotope analysis of amino acids on 153 harbor seal museum skull specimens to determine how trophic position of this marine predator has responded to ecosystem change over the past century. The relationships between harbor seal trophic position, ocean condition, and prey abundance, were analyzed using hierarchical modeling of a multi-amino-acid framework and applying 1, 2, and 3 years temporal lags. We identified delayed responses of harbor seal trophic position to both physical ocean conditions (upwelling, sea surface temperature, freshwater discharge) and prey availability (Pacific hake, Pacific herring, and Chinook salmon). However, the magnitude and direction of the trophic position response to ecological changes depended on the temporal delay. For example, harbor seal trophic position was negatively associated with summer upwelling but had a 1-year delayed response to summer sea surface temperature, indicating that some predator responses to ecosystem change are not immediately observable. These results highlight the importance of considering dynamic responses of predators to their environment as multiple ecological factors are often changing simultaneously and can take years to propagate up the food web.

Microscopic anatomy of the upper aerodigestive tract in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina): Functional adaptations to swallowing.

Abandoned harbor seal pups (Phoca vitulina) are frequently recovered by rehabilitation centers and often require intensive nursing, gavage feeding and swallowing rehabilitation prior to anticipated release. Seal upper aerodigestive tract (UAT) histology descriptions relevant to deglutition are limited, impacting advances in rehabilitation practice. Therefore, we examined the histological characteristics of the harbor seal UAT to understand species-specific functional anatomy and characterize adaptations. To this end, we conducted gross dissections, compiled measurements and reviewed histologic features of the UAT structures of 14 preweaned harbor seal pups that died due to natural causes or were humanely euthanized. Representative samples for histologic evaluation included the tongue, salivary glands, epiglottis, and varying levels of the trachea and esophagus. Histologically, there was a prominent muscularis in the tongue with fewer lingual papillae types compared to humans. Abundant submucosal glands were observed in lateral and pharyngeal parts of the tongue and rostral parts of the esophagus. When compared to other mammalian species, there was a disproportionate increase in the amount of striated muscle throughout the length of the esophageal muscularis externa. This may indicate a lesser degree of autonomic control over the esophageal phase of swallowing in harbor seals. Our study represents the first detailed UAT histological descriptions for neonatal harbor seals. Collectively, these findings support specific anatomic and biomechanical adaptations relevant to suckling, prehension, and deglutition. This work will inform rehabilitation practices and guide future studies on swallowing physiology in harbor seals with potential applications to other pinniped and otariid species in rehabilitation settings.

Beyond the classic sensory systems: Characteristics of the sense of time of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) assessed in a visual temporal discrimination and a bisection task.

Beyond the classic sensory systems, the sense of time is most likely involved from foraging to navigation. As a prerequisite for assessing the role time is playing in different behavioral contexts, we further characterized the sense of time of a harbor seal in this study. Supra-second time intervals were presented to the seal in a temporal discrimination and a temporal bisection task. During temporal discrimination, the seal needed to discriminate between a standard time interval (STI) and a longer comparison interval. In the bisection task, the seal learnt to discriminate two STIs. Subsequently, it indicated its subjective perception of test time intervals as resembling either the short or long STI more. The seal, although unexperienced regarding timing experiments, learnt both tasks fast. Depending on task, time interval or duration ratio, it achieved a high temporal sensitivity with Weber fractions ranging from 0.11 to 0.26. In the bisection task, the prerequisites for the Scalar Expectancy Theory including a constant Weber fraction, the bisection point lying close to the geometric mean of the STIs, and no significant influence of the STI pair condition on the probability of a long response were met for STIs with a ratio of 1:2, but not with a ratio of 1:4. In conclusion, the harbor seal's sense of time allows precise and complex judgments of time intervals. Cross-species comparisons suggest that principles commonly found to govern timing performance can also be discerned in harbor seals.

Drivers and constraints on offshore foraging in harbour seals.

Central place foragers are expected to offset travel costs between a central place and foraging areas by targeting productive feeding zones. Harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) make multi-day foraging trips away from coastal haul-out sites presumably to target rich food resources, but periodic track points from telemetry tags may be insufficient to infer reliably where, and how often, foraging takes place. To study foraging behaviour during offshore trips, and assess what factors limit trip duration, we equipped harbour seals in the German Wadden Sea with high-resolution multi-sensor bio-logging tags, recording 12 offshore trips from 8 seals. Using acceleration transients as a proxy for prey capture attempts, we found that foraging rates during travel to and from offshore sites were comparable to offshore rates. Offshore foraging trips may, therefore, reflect avoidance of intra-specific competition rather than presence of offshore foraging hotspots. Time spent resting increased by approx. 37 min/day during trips suggesting that a resting deficit rather than patch depletion may influence trip length. Foraging rates were only weakly correlated with surface movement patterns highlighting the value of integrating multi-sensor data from on-animal bio-logging tags (GPS, depth, accelerometers and magnetometers) to infer behaviour and habitat use.

Increased Metabolic Rate of Hauled-Out Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina) during the Molt.

AbstractHarbor seals (Phoca vitulina) live in cold temperate or polar seas and molt annually, renewing their fur over a period of approximately 4 wk. Epidermal processes at this time require a warm skin; therefore, to avoid an excessive energy cost at sea during the molt, harbor seals and many other pinnipeds increase the proportion of time they are hauled out on land. We predicted that metabolic rate during haul-out would be greater during the molt to sustain an elevated skin temperature in order to optimize skin and hair growth. To examine this, we measured post-haul-out oxygen consumption (V˙O2) in captive harbor seals during molt and postmolt periods. We recorded greater V˙O2 of seals while they were molting than when the molt was complete. Post-haul-out V˙O2 increased faster and reached a greater maximum during the first 40 min. Thereafter, V˙O2 decreased but still remained greater, suggesting that while metabolic rate was relatively high throughout haul-outs, it was most pronounced in the first 40 min. Air temperature, estimated heat increment of feeding, and mass also explained 15.5% of V˙O2 variation over 180 min after haul-out, suggesting that the environment, feeding state, and body size influenced the metabolic rate of individual animals. These results show that molting seals have greater metabolic rates when hauled out, especially during the early stages of the haul-out period. As a consequence, human disturbance that changes the haul-out behavior of molting seals will increase their energy costs and potentially extend the duration of the molt.

Migrations of young spotted seals (Phoca largha) from Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan/East Sea, and the pattern of their use of seasonal habitats.

We studied the migrations of young spotted seals during their annual cycle. In May 2017, we attached satellite tags (SPOT-293A) to three individuals (two underyearlings and one yearling) captured at their breeding ground in Peter the Great Bay, western Sea of Japan/East Sea. The operational time of the installed tags ranged from 207 to 333 days; a total of 27195 locations were uploaded. All three seals migrated east and further north along the coast of the mainland. The average daily migration speed of the seals ranged between 70 and 135 km/day. The yearling moved faster than the underyearlings. During early August, they arrived at their summer habitats, which were located in the northern part of the Tatar Strait (Sea of Japan/East Sea) for the underyearling seals and in Aniva Bay (Sea of Okhotsk) for the yearling seal. While moving from the place of tagging to the summer feeding grounds, the seals covered a distance of 2300 to 3100 km. From August to October, each seal permanently stayed within the same isolated area. The reverse migration of all three seals began in November. When the seals traveled south, they used the same routes by which they had moved north in the spring, but they moved at a faster speed. By December, two seals returned to their natal islands, where both stayed until their transmitters stopped sending signals (in March 2018).

Pinnipeds orient and control their whiskers: a study on Pacific walrus, California sea lion and Harbor seal.

Whisker touch is an active sensory system. Previous studies in Pinnipeds have adopted relatively stationary tasks to judge tactile sensitivity, which may not accurately promote natural whisker movements and behaviours. This study developed a novel feeding task, termed fish sweeping to encourage whisker movements. Head and whisker movements were tracked from video footage in Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) and Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). All species oriented their head towards the moving fish target and moved their whiskers during the task. Some species also engaged in whisker control behaviours, including head-turning asymmetry in the Pacific walrus, and contact-induced asymmetry in the Pacific walrus and California sea lion: behaviours that have only previously been observed in terrestrial mammals. This study confirms that Pinnipeds should be thought of as whisker specialists, and that whisker control (movement and positioning) is an important aspect of touch sensing in these animals, especially in sea lions and walruses. That the California sea lion controls whisker movement in relation to an object, and also had large values of whisker amplitude, spread and asymmetry, suggests that California sea lions are a promising model with which to further explore active touch sensing.

Long-term evidence of noise-induced permanent threshold shift in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina).

In psychophysical studies of noise-induced hearing loss with marine mammals, exposure conditions are often titrated from levels of no effect to those that induce significant but recoverable loss of auditory sensitivity [temporary threshold shift (TTS)]. To examine TTS from mid-frequency noise, a harbor seal was exposed to a 4.1-kHz underwater tone that was incrementally increased in sound pressure level (SPL) and duration. The seal's hearing was evaluated at the exposure frequency and one-half octave higher (5.8 kHz) to identify the noise parameters associated with TTS onset. No reliable TTS was measured with increasing sound exposure level until the second exposure to a 60-s fatiguing tone of 181 dB re 1 µPa SPL (sound exposure level 199 dB re 1 µPa2s), after which an unexpectedly large threshold shift (>47 dB) was observed. While hearing at 4.1 kHz recovered within 48 h, there was a permanent threshold shift of at least 8 dB at 5.8 kHz. This hearing loss was evident for more than ten years. Furthermore, a residual threshold shift of 11 dB was detected one octave above the tonal exposure, at 8.2 kHz. This hearing loss persisted for more than two years prior to full recovery.

Phase-difference on seal whisker surface induces hairpin vortices in the wake to suppress force oscillation.

Seals are able to use their uniquely shaped whiskers to track hydrodynamic trails generated 30 s ago and detect hydrodynamic velocities as low as 245 [Formula: see text]m s-1. The high sensibility has long thought to be related to the wavy shape of the whiskers. This work revisited the hydrodynamics of a seal whisker model in a uniform flow, and discovered a new mechanism of seal whiskers in reducing self-induced noises, which is different from the long thought-of effect of the wavy shape. It was reported that the major and minor axes of the elliptical cross-sections of seal whisker are out of phase by approximately 180 degrees. Three-dimensional numerical simulations of laminar flow (Reynolds number range: 150-500) around seal-whisker-like cylinders were performed to examine the effect of the phase-difference on hydrodynamic forces and wake structures. It was found that the phase-difference induced hairpin vortices in the wake over a wide range of geometric and flow parameters (wavelength, wavy amplitude and Reynolds number), therefore substantially reducing lift-oscillations and self-induced noises. The formation mechanism of the hairpin vortices was analyzed and is discussed in details. The results provide valuable insights into an innovative vibration reduction and hydrodynamic sensing mechanism.

Shining new light on mammalian diving physiology using wearable near-infrared spectroscopy.

Investigation of marine mammal dive-by-dive blood distribution and oxygenation has been limited by a lack of noninvasive technology for use in freely diving animals. Here, we developed a noninvasive near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) device to measure relative changes in blood volume and haemoglobin oxygenation continuously in the blubber and brain of voluntarily diving harbour seals. Our results show that seals routinely exhibit preparatory peripheral vasoconstriction accompanied by increased cerebral blood volume approximately 15 s before submersion. These anticipatory adjustments confirm that blood redistribution in seals is under some degree of cognitive control that precedes the mammalian dive response. Seals also routinely increase cerebral oxygenation at a consistent time during each dive, despite a lack of access to ambient air. We suggest that this frequent and reproducible reoxygenation pattern, without access to ambient air, is underpinned by previously unrecognised changes in cerebral drainage. The ability to track blood volume and oxygenation in different tissues using NIRS will facilitate a more accurate understanding of physiological plasticity in diving animals in an increasingly disturbed and exploited environment.

Do marine reserves increase prey for California sea lions and Pacific harbor seals?

Community marine reserves are geographical areas closed to fishing activities, implemented and enforced by the same fishermen that fish around them. Their main objective is to recover commercial stocks of fish and invertebrates. While marine reserves have proven successful in many parts of the world, their success near important marine predator colonies, such as the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) and the Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardii), is yet to be analyzed. In response to the concerns expressed by local fishermen about the impact of the presence of pinnipeds on their communities' marine reserves, we conducted underwater surveys around four islands in the Pacific west of the Baja California Peninsula: two without reserves (Todos Santos and San Roque); one with a recently established reserve (San Jeronimo); and, a fourth with reserves established eight years ago (Natividad). All these islands are subject to similar rates of exploitation by fishing cooperatives with exclusive rights. We estimated fish biomass and biodiversity in the seas around the islands, applying filters for potential California sea lion and harbor seal prey using known species from the literature. Generalized linear mixed models revealed that the age of the reserve has a significant positive effect on fish biomass, while the site (inside or outside of the reserve) did not, with a similar result found for the biomass of the prey of the California sea lion. Fish biodiversity was also higher around Natividad Island, while invertebrate biodiversity was higher around San Roque. These findings indicate that marine reserves increase overall fish diversity and biomass, despite the presence of top predators, even increasing the numbers of their potential prey. Community marine reserves may help to improve the resilience of marine mammals to climate-driven phenomena and maintain a healthy marine ecosystem for the benefit of both pinnipeds and fishermen.

Does Vibrissal Innervation Patterns and Investment Predict Hydrodynamic Trail Following Behavior of Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina)?

Our understanding of vibrissal function in pinnipeds is poor due to the lack of comparative morphological, neurobiological, and psychophysical performance data. In contrast, the function of terrestrial mammalian vibrissae is better studied. Pinnipeds have the largest vibrissae of all mammals, and phocids may have the most modified vibrissae. The tactile performance for pinniped vibrissae is well known for harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). Harbor seals display at least two types of tactile behavior involving their mystacial vibrissae: a fine discriminatory capability using active touch and hydrodynamic trail following (the ability to detect and follow turbulent trails). This study investigated innervation patterns of harbor seal follicle-sinus complexes (F-SCs) to test the hypothesis that the whiskers used in hydrodynamic trail following possess increased innervation investment compared to other phocids. Therefore, the most lateral vibrissae from five harbor seals were histologically processed so that morphometric measurements and axon counts could be collected. Vibrissae from one harbor seal were immunolabeled with anti-protein gene product (PGP 9.5) to document the pattern of deep vibrissal nerve innervation of the F-SCs. Overall, harbor seals showed an innervation pattern (axons/F-SC and axons/muzzle) similar to other phocids. The ventrolateral vibrissae, involved in hydrodynamic trail following, have greater axon density in harbor seals than harp seals, suggesting harbor seal F-SC innervation patterns could explain their performance at trail following. The combination of microstructural, innervation investment, and behavioral data provides a foundation for functional inference regarding this tactile behavior in harbor seals and also facilitates future comparative work for other pinniped species. Anat Rec, 302:1837-1845, 2019. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy.

Timing of antisynchronous calling: A case study in a harbor seal pup (Phoca vitulina).

Alternative mathematical models predict differences in how animals adjust the timing of their calls. Differences can be measured as the effect of the timing of a conspecific call on the rate and period of calling of a focal animal, and the lag between the two. Here, I test these alternative hypotheses by tapping into harbor seals' (Phoca vitulina) mechanisms for spontaneous timing. Both socioecology and vocal behavior of harbor seals make them an interesting model species to study call rhythm and timing. Here, a wild-born seal pup was tested in controlled laboratory conditions. Based on previous recordings of her vocalizations and those of others, I designed playback experiments adapted to that specific animal. The call onsets of the animal were measured as a function of tempo, rhythmic regularity, and spectral properties of the playbacks. The pup adapted the timing of her calls in response to conspecifics' calls. Rather than responding at a fixed time delay, the pup adjusted her calls' onset to occur at a fraction of the playback tempo, showing a relative-phase antisynchrony. Experimental results were confirmed via computational modeling. This case study lends preliminary support to a classic mathematical model of animal behavior-Hamilton's selfish herd-in the acoustic domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Effect of pile-driving sounds on harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) hearing.

Seals exposed to intense sounds may suffer hearing loss. After exposure to playbacks of broadband pile-driving sounds, the temporary hearing threshold shift (TTS) of two harbor seals was quantified at 4 and 8 kHz (frequencies of the highest TTS) with a psychoacoustic technique. The pile-driving sounds had: a 127 ms pulse duration, 2760 strikes per h, a 1.3 s inter-pulse interval, a ∼9.5% duty cycle, and an average received single-strike unweighted sound exposure level (SELss) of 151 dB re 1 µPa2s. Exposure durations were 180 and 360 min [cumulative sound exposure level (SELcum): 190 and 193 dB re 1 µPa2s]. Control sessions were conducted under low ambient noise. TTS only occurred after 360 min exposures (mean TTS: seal 02, 1-4 min after sound stopped: 3.9 dB at 4 kHz and 2.4 dB at 8 kHz; seal 01, 12-16 min after sound stopped: 2.8 dB at 4 kHz and 2.6 dB at 8 kHz). Hearing recovered within 60 min post-exposure. The TTSs were small, due to the small amount of sound energy to which the seals were exposed. Biological TTS onset SELcum for the pile-driving sounds used in this study is around 192 dB re 1 µPa2s (for mean received SELss of 151 dB re 1 µPa and a duty cycle of ∼9.5%).

Visitor effects on a zoo population of California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and harbor seals (Phoca vitulina).

The effects of visitor presence on zoo and aquarium animals have become increasingly well studied, using measures such as behavioral responses and exhibit usage. Many taxa remain underrepresented in this literature; this is the case for marine mammals, despite widespread public concern for their welfare in managed care settings. The current study therefore used behavioral activity budgets and exhibit usage to assess the responses of California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) to visitors at the Seal Cove exhibit at Six Flags Discovery Kingdom, Vallejo CA. Data was collected via focal follow video recordings over the summer season of 2016, and analyzed using MANCOVAs, discriminant analyses, and modified Spread of Participation Indices. The sea lions showed no significant changes in behavior when visitors were present, but did show greater preference for the water bordering visitor viewing areas during these times. Two sea lions gave birth during the study period, and showed greater preference for land areas both adjacent to and out of sight of visitors when nursing compared to while pregnant. In contrast, the harbor seals showed significant behavioral changes in the presence of visitors, including increased vigilance and feeding. This was associated with increased preferential use of water areas adjacent to the visitor viewing area. Visitors were able to purchase fish to throw to the animals, which likely contributed to the differences observed. Overall, this study found little evidence for negative visitor impacts on two pinniped species in a zoo setting.

Detection and direction discrimination of single vortex rings by harbour seals (Phoca vitulina).

Harbour seals possess highly sensitive vibrissae that enable them to track hydrodynamic trails left behind by a swimming fish. Most of these trails contain vortex rings as a main hydrodynamic component. They may reveal information about their generator as the trails differ depending on the fish species, the fish's body shape, size and swimming style. In addition, fish generate single vortex rings in diverse natural situations. In this study, the ability of blindfolded stationary harbour seals to detect and analyse single vortex rings regarding directional information has been investigated. In three different behavioural experiments, the animals were trained to respond to single artificially generated vortex rings. The results show that harbour seals are able to respond to a variety of different vortex rings upon vibrissal stimulation. The investigation of the minimum hydrodynamically perceivable angle revealed that it is at least as small as 5.7 deg, which was the smallest adjustable angle. Moreover, harbour seals are capable of analysing the travel direction of a vortex ring perceived by the mystacial vibrissae irrespective of whether the vibrissae were stimulated ipsilaterally or contralaterally. In situations in which no complex hydrodynamic trail is available, it is advantageous for a hunting seal to be able to extract information from a single vortex ring.

Spontaneous rhythms in a harbor seal pup calls.

OBJECTIVES: Timing and rhythm (i.e. temporal structure) are crucial, though historically neglected, dimensions of animal communication. When investigating these in non-human animals, it is often difficult to balance experimental control and ecological validity. Here I present the first step of an attempt to balance the two, focusing on the timing of vocal rhythms in a harbor seal pup (Phoca vitulina). Collection of this data had a clear aim: To find spontaneous vocal rhythms in this individual in order to design individually-adapted and ecologically-relevant stimuli for a later playback experiment. DATA DESCRIPTION: The calls of one seal pup were recorded. The audio recordings were annotated using Praat, a free software to analyze vocalizations in humans and other animals. The annotated onsets and offsets of vocalizations were then imported in a Python script. The script extracted three types of timing information: the duration of calls, the intervals between calls' onsets, and the intervals between calls' maximum-intensity peaks. Based on the annotated data, available to download, I provide simple descriptive statistics for these temporal measures, and compare their distributions.

Mechanical properties of harbor seal skin and blubber - a test of anisotropy.

The skin and blubber of marine mammals provides protection from the surrounding environment, whether that be temperature, microbes, or direct mechanical impacts. To understand the ability of harbor seals' (Phoca vitulina) skin and blubber to resist blunt force trauma, we tested the material properties of these tissues. We quantified two mechanical properties of the tissue: tensile strength and tensile stiffness, at two test speeds, three sample orientations, and two age groups. We found significant differences in material properties between test speeds, orientation, and age of the animal, but did not find a large difference with orientation. From this analysis, we conclude that harbor seal skin and blubber should be modeled as an isotropic non-linear elastic material with strain rate dependence. Moreover, we were interested in the effects of freezing on the biomechanical properties. The material was tested fresh and after being frozen for four months. Frozen data revealed an increase in stiffness and strength for the skin (epidermis and dermis), but did not show a conclusive trend in the blubber material properties. While the availability of frozen marine mammal tissue is greater than that of fresh material, frozen tissue of harbor seals, especially the skin, cannot serve as an accurate replacement for testing of fresh material.

Sensing the flow beneath the fins.

Flow sensing, maneuverability, energy efficiency and vigilance of surroundings are the key factors that dictate the performance of marine animals. Be it swimming at high speeds, attack or escape maneuvers, sensing and survival hydrodynamics are a constant feature of life in the ocean. Fishes are capable of performing energy efficient maneuvers, including capturing energy from vortical structures in water. These impressive capabilities are made possible by the uncanny ability of fish to sense minute pressure and flow variations on their body. This is achieved by arrays of biological neuromast sensors on their bodies that 'feel' the surroundings through 'touch at a distance' sensing. The main focus of this paper is to review the various biomimetic material approaches in developing superficial neuromast inspired ultrasensitive MEMS sensors. Principals and methods that translate biomechanical filtering properties of canal neuromasts to benefit artificial MEMS sensors have also been discussed. MEMS sensors with ultrahigh flow sensitivity and accuracy have been developed mainly through inspiration from the hair cell and cupula structures in the neuromast. Canal-inspired packages have proven beneficial in hydrodynamic flow filtering in artificial sensors enabling signal amplification and noise attenuation. A special emphasis has been placed on the recent innovations that closely mimic the structural and material designs of stereocilia of neuromasts by exploring soft polymers.

Competing tradeoffs between increasing marine mammal predation and fisheries harvest of Chinook salmon.

Many marine mammal predators, particularly pinnipeds, have increased in abundance in recent decades, generating new challenges for balancing human uses with recovery goals via ecosystem-based management. We used a spatio-temporal bioenergetics model of the Northeast Pacific Ocean to quantify how predation by three species of pinnipeds and killer whales (Orcinus orca) on Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) has changed since the 1970s along the west coast of North America, and compare these estimates to salmon fisheries. We find that from 1975 to 2015, biomass of Chinook salmon consumed by pinnipeds and killer whales increased from 6,100 to 15,200 metric tons (from 5 to 31.5 million individual salmon). Though there is variation across the regions in our model, overall, killer whales consume the largest biomass of Chinook salmon, but harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) consume the largest number of individuals. The decrease in adult Chinook salmon harvest from 1975-2015 was 16,400 to 9,600 metric tons. Thus, Chinook salmon removals (harvest + consumption) increased in the past 40 years despite catch reductions by fisheries, due to consumption by recovering pinnipeds and endangered killer whales. Long-term management strategies for Chinook salmon will need to consider potential conflicts between rebounding predators or endangered predators and prey.