Oscillatory Cs-137 Distribution Pattern in Scotch Pine Bark.

The vertical distribution of the anthropogenic radionuclide Cs-137 in the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) bark was studied in two model trees in the radioactive contamination zone of the Bryansk region. Each tree was divided into 10-cm bars from the trunk base to a length of 17 m, and the bark with the bast was separated from each bar to obtain a separate sample. In addition to Cs-137, the natural radionuclide K-40 was measured in the bark of model tree 2 from the trunk base to a 6.5-m length. Specific activities of Cs-137 and K-40 were measured by γ-ray spectrometry. The vertical distribution of Cs-137 in the bark was for the first time observed to have a wave-like pattern with a period of approximately 1 m. The K-40 distribution showed a similar oscillatory pattern, consistent with a similar mechanism responsible for potassium and cesium behavior in woody plants. The correlation coefficient between specific activities of Cs-137 in model trees 1 and 2 was 0.80; the correlation coefficient between Cs-137 and K-40 activities in model tree 2 was 0.45. Cs-137 was assumed to provide a radiotracer to assess the intake and distribution of chemical elements in Scotch pine tissues. The oscillatory pattern observed for the vertical distributions of cesium and potassium in the pine bark has not been described in the available literature before.

Adaptation of Betula pendula Roth., Pinus sylvestris L., and Larix decidua Mill. to environmental stress caused by tailings waste highly contaminated by trace elements.

The seedlings of some tree species can successfully develop in areas polluted by heavy metals. Research on such species is important in order to explore the possibility of introducing tree species for the permanent biological stabilization and reclamation of post-flotation tailings, especially after the final recycling of trace metals, but where concentrations remain much higher than in natural soils. To better understand the adaptation and reaction of Betula pendula Roth., Pinus sylvestris L., and Larix decidua Mill. seedlings to heavy metals pollution caused by tailings waste highly contaminated by trace elements: 1) the relationships between the concentration of heavy metals in the soil substrate, the efficiency of heavy metal ions accumulation in plant organs, and the biometric parameters of the seedlings; and 2) the threshold content of heavy metals in the roots above which the plant physiological response is triggered was determined. We assume that there are certain limit concentrations of heavy metals in the soil and fine roots, which depend on the tree species and beyond which the plant responds strongly to stressThe obtained results showed that Betula is a suitable species for the phytostabilization of post-flotation tailings due to its rapid growth rate and production of root biomass. The accumulation of metals in Betula roots was found to be much greater than in Pinus and Larix. Despite the high concentrations of heavy metals in the prepared substrates, there was only a slight transfer of these elements to the aboveground parts of the plant. At high soil concentrations, the heavy metals adversely affected the cellular and physiological processes of plants. In plants growing in such conditions, the activity of the antioxidant system depended both on the species and organ of the plant, as well as on the type and metal concentration.

Diversity and negative effect of PM0.3-10.0 adsorbed by needles of urban trees in Irkutsk, Russia.

The study was performed in natural forests preserved within the Boreal zone city, Irkutsk, Russia. Test sites were selected in the forests in different districts of the city, where samples of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) needles were taken to study the adsorption on their surface of aerosol particles of different sizes, in microns: PM0.3, PM0.5, PM1, PM2.5, PM5, PM10. Scanning electron microscopy was used to obtain high-resolution photographs (magnification 800- × 2000, × 16,000) and aerosol particles (particulate matter-PM) were shown to be intensively adsorbed by the surface of needles, with both size and shape of the particles characterized by a wide variety. Pine needles can be covered with particles of solid aerosol by 50-75%, stomata are often completely blocked. Larch needles often show areas, which are completely covered with aerosol particles, there are often found stomata deformed by the penetration of PMx. X-ray spectral microanalysis showed differences in the chemical composition of adsorbed PMx, the particles can be metallic if metals predominate in their composition, carbonaceous-in case of carbon predominance-or polyelemental if the composition is complex and includes significant quantities of other elements besides metals and carbon (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, sulfur, chlorine, fluorine). Since the particles contain a large proportion of technogenic pollutants, accumulation by the needles of some widespread pollutants was investigated. A direct correlation of a highly significant level between the concentration of PMx in the air and the accumulation of many heavy metals in pine and larch needles, as well as sulfur, fluorine, and chlorine, has been revealed, which indicates a high cleaning capacity of urban forests. At the same time, the negative impact of PMx particles on the vital status of trees is great, which shows in intense disturbance of the parameters of photosynthesis and transpiration, leading to a significant decrease in the growth characteristics of trees and reduction in the photosynthetic volume of the crowns. We consider that the results obtained are instrumental in developing an approach to improvement of urban forests status and creating a comfortable urban environment for the population.

Biochemical Aspects of the Spiral Grain Formation in Scots Pine (Pinus Sylvestris L.) Wood. Some Differences and Similarities with Biochemical Indicators of Abnormal Xylogenesis in Karelian Birch (Betula Pendula Roth Var. Carelica (Mercl.) Hämet-Ahti).

BACKGROUND: AOS enzymes can be biochemical indicators of abnormal xylogenesis in Scots pine, and this mechanism has similar features with the metabolic base of abnormal xylogenesis in Karelian birch. OBJECTIVE: AOS enzymes' activity in 150-300-year-old Pinus sylvestris L. wood with straight-- grained wood and right-twisted spiral-grained wood, expressed in varying degrees (5-20 angle), grew in three sample plots in lingonberry and blueberry pine forest stands of different ages (100-300 years) in the middle taiga subzone in the Republic of Karelia. METHODS: Plant tissues were ground in liquid nitrogen in a uniform mass and homogenized at 4°C in the buffer containing 50 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 3 mM DTT, 5 mM MgCl2 and 0.5 mM PMSF. After 20 min extraction, the homogenate was centrifuged at 10000 g for 20 min (MPW-351R, Poland). The sediment was washed in the buffer thrice. The pooled supernatant and sediment were dialyzed at 4°C for 18-20 h against a tenfold diluted homogenization buffer. The enzymes' activity was determined spectrophotometrically (Spectrophotometer SF-2000, OKB Spectr, Russia). Proteins in the extracts were quantified by the method of Bradford. RESULTS: The study showed that the activity of SS, ApInv, CAT, POD and PPO in xylem and PPO in phloem were biochemical indicators for abnormal wood of P. sylvestris. We noticed an increase in sucrose metabolism in the apoplast and the activity of POD and PPO under spiral-grain wood formation like under figured wood formation earlier. We assume that the alternative pathway of sucrose metabolism (an indicator of abnormal xylogenesis in B. pendula var. carelica plants) that lead to restructuring of AOS enzymes have the same biochemical regularities in the spiral-grain wood formation in P. sylvestris. CONCLUSION: The study showed that the differences in the AOS enzyme's activity in P. sylvestris during the formation of straight-grained and spiral-grained wood were revealed for the first time. The increased CAT, POD and PPO activities in xylem with a decrease in SS and an increase in Ap- Inv during spiral-grained wood formation can be biochemical markers of these structural anomalies. Metabolic regularities found in the AOS enzyme complex during spiral-grained wood formation do not contradict those found earlier during figured wood formation in B. pendula var. carelica. The identified patterns can form the base for diagnostics of P. sylvestris wood quality in forest seed plantations and in their natural growth, which is necessary both for fundamental science and in various industry areas while high-quality material harvesting.

Adaptation of a simple method to determine the total terpenoid content in needles of coniferous trees.

In ecological research, quantitative methods are often used to measure the total content of metabolites groups (i.e., phenols, carbohydrates). Until recently, there has been no simple and effective method to determine the total terpenoid content with satisfactory repeatability and sensitivity. The procedure proposed by Ghorai et al. (2012) requires the use of fresh plant material. That may be problematic when experimental units are located far from a laboratory. Our goals were to optimize the procedure, and to find the threshold of misestimation using the procedure adjusted to work with dried material. Needles of Pinus sylvestris were used to test the effect of changes in drying, grinding, storage, and extraction on determined total terpenoid content. All applied changes in material storage and grinding decreased the quantity of the terpenoids in needles. Only air-dried and ball-milled material produced similar results to those obtained with fresh material - can be recommended if the fresh material unattainable. Air-dried material may be stored for up to three months, but it resulted in greater variation and then greater sample size is needed. Lower sample mass and solvent volume have no impact on accuracy. Shorter extraction time, oven-drying or microwaving leads to unreliability of measurements.

Drought effects on volatile organic compound emissions from Scots pine stems.

Tree stems have been identified as sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that play important roles in tree defence and atmospheric chemistry. Yet, we lack understanding on the magnitude and environmental drivers of stem VOC emissions in various forest ecosystems. Due to the increasing importance of extreme drought, we studied drought effects on the VOC emissions from mature Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stems. We measured monoterpenes, acetone, acetaldehyde and methanol emissions with custom-made stem chambers, online PTR-MS and adsorbent sampling in a drought-prone forest over the hot-dry summer of 2018 and compared the emission rates and dynamics between trees in naturally dry conditions and under long-term irrigation (drought release). The pine stems were significant monoterpene sources. The stem monoterpene emissions potentially originated from resin, based on their similar monoterpene spectra. The emission dynamics of all VOCs followed temperature at a daily scale, but monoterpene and acetaldehyde emission rates decreased nonlinearly with drought over the summer. Despite the dry conditions, large peaks of monoterpene, acetaldehyde and acetone emissions occurred in late summer potentially due to abiotic or biotic stressors. Our results highlight the potential importance of stem emissions in the ecosystem VOC budget, encouraging further studies in diverse environments.

The Inhibition of Non-albicans Candida Species and Uncommon Yeast Pathogens by Selected Essential Oils and Their Major Compounds.

The epidemiology of yeast infections and resistance to available antifungal drugs are rapidly increasing, and non-albicans Candida species and rare yeast species are increasingly emerging as major opportunistic pathogens. In order to identify new strategies to counter the threat of antimicrobial resistant microorganisms, essential oils (EOs) have become an important potential in the treatment of fungal infections. EOs and their bioactive pure compounds have been found to exhibit a wide range of remarkable biological activities. We investigated the in vitro antifungal activity of nine commercial EOs such as Thymus vulgaris (thyme red), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Lavandula vera (lavender), Pinus sylvestris (pine), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Melissa officinalis (lemon balm), Salvia officinalis (sage), Eugenia caryophyllata (clove) and Pelargonium asperum (geranium), and some of their main components (α-pinene, carvacrol, citronellal, eugenol, γ-terpinene, linalool, linalylacetate, terpinen-4-ol, thymol) against non-albicans Candida strains and uncommon yeasts. The EOs were analyzed by GC-MS, and their antifungal properties were evaluated by minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum fungicidal concentration parameters, in accordance with CLSI guidelines, with some modifications for EOs. Pine exhibited strong antifungal activity against the selected non-albicans Candida isolates and uncommon yeasts. In addition, lemon balm EOs and α-pinene exhibited strong antifungal activity against the selected non-albicans Candida yeasts. Thymol inhibited the growth of all uncommon yeasts. These data showed a promising potential application of EOs as natural adjuvant for management of infections by emerging non-albicans Candida species and uncommon pathogenic yeasts.

Extracts of pine bark (Pinus sylvestris) inhibit Cryptosporidium parvum growth in cell culture.

The widespread apicomplexan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum is responsible for severe gastrointestinal disease in humans and animals. The treatment options are limited, and the efficacy of available drugs is low. Bark contains condensed tannins (CT), which are bioactive compounds previously shown to inhibit parasite development. Here, we examined the anti-cryptosporidial properties of bark extract of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) against C. parvum by means of an in vitro growth inhibition test. We hypothesised that bark extracts would have dose-dependent inhibitory effects on the development of C. parvum in cell culture.Bark extracts from Scots pine extracted with acetone, methanol, and water as solvents were investigated using human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells infected with C. parvum. Oocysts were inoculated onto the cell monolayer and bark extract was added at seven different concentrations. Parasite growth inhibition was quantified by qPCR.The acetone and methanol extracts demonstrated a sigmoid dose-dependent inhibition of C. parvum. The IC50 values were 244.6 and 279.1 µg dry matter extract/mL, and 25.4 and 24.1 µg CT/mL, for acetone and methanol extracts, respectively. The IC50 for both extracts were similar, both with regard to the dry matter concentration of each extract and to CT concentrations.Given the limited treatment options available for Cryptosporidium spp., the evidence generated in our study encourages further investigation into the in vitro and in vivo effects of pine bark extracts against C. parvum.

Pinosylvin Shifts Macrophage Polarization to Support Resolution of Inflammation.

Pinosylvin is a natural stilbenoid found particularly in Scots pine. Stilbenoids are a group of phenolic compounds identified as protective agents against pathogens for many plants. Stilbenoids also possess health-promoting properties in humans; for instance, they are anti-inflammatory through their suppressing action on proinflammatory M1-type macrophage activation. Macrophages respond to environmental changes by polarizing towards proinflammatory M1 phenotype in infection and inflammatory diseases, or towards anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype, mediating resolution of inflammation and repair. In the present study, we investigated the effects of pinosylvin on M2-type macrophage activation, aiming to test the hypothesis that pinosylvin could polarize macrophages from M1 to M2 phenotype to support resolution of inflammation. We used lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce M1 phenotype and interleukin-4 (IL-4) to induce M2 phenotype in J774 murine and U937 human macrophages, and we measured expression of M1 and M2-markers. Interestingly, along with inhibiting the expression of M1-type markers, pinosylvin had an enhancing effect on the M2-type activation, shown as an increased expression of arginase-1 (Arg-1) and mannose receptor C type 1 (MRC1) in murine macrophages, and C-C motif chemokine ligands 17 and 26 (CCL17 and CCL26) in human macrophages. In IL-4-treated macrophages, pinosylvin enhanced PPAR-γ expression but had no effect on STAT6 phosphorylation. The results show, for the first time, that pinosylvin shifts macrophage polarization from the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype towards M2 phenotype, supporting resolution of inflammation and repair.

Toxicological and bioactivity evaluation of blackcurrant press cake, sea buckthorn leaves and bark from Scots pine and Norway spruce extracts under a green integrated approach.

Aqueous extracts from blackcurrant press cake (BC), Norway spruce bark (NS), Scots pine bark (SP), and sea buckthorn leaves (SB) were obtained using maceration and pressurized hot water and tested for their bioactivities. Maceration provided the extraction of higher dry matter contents, including total phenolics (TPC), anthocyanins, and condensed tannins, which also impacted higher antioxidant activity. NS and SB extracts presented the highest mean values of TPC and antioxidant activity. Individually, NS extract presented high contents of proanthocyanidins, resveratrol, and some phenolic acids. In contrast, SB contained a high concentration of ellagitannins, ellagic acid, and quercetin, explaining the antioxidant activity and antibacterial effects. SP and BC extracts had the lowest TPC and antioxidant activity. However, BC had strong antiviral efficacy, whereas SP can be considered a potential ingredient to inhibit α-amylase. Except for BC, the other extracts decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in HCT8 and A549 cells. Extracts did not inhibit the production of TNF-alpha in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated THP-1 macrophages but inhibited the ROS generation during the THP-1 cell respiratory burst. The recovery of antioxidant compounds from these by-products is incentivized for high value-added applications.

Verification of Chromatographic Profile of Primary Essential Oil of Pinus sylvestris L. Combined with Chemometric Analysis.

Chromatographic profiles of primary essential oils (EO) deliver valuable authentic information about composition and compound pattern. Primary EOs obtained from Pinus sylvestris L. (PS) from different global origins were analyzed using gas chromatography coupled to a flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and identified by GC hyphenated to mass spectrometer (GC-MS). A primary EO of PS was characterized by a distinct sesquiterpene pattern followed by a diterpene profile containing diterpenoids of the labdane, pimarane or abietane type. Based on their sesquiterpene compound patterns, primary EOs of PS were separated into their geographical origin using component analysis. Furthermore, differentiation of closely related pine EOs by partial least square discriminant analysis proved the existence of a primary EO of PS. The developed and validated PLS-DA model is suitable as a screening tool to assess the correct chemotaxonomic identification of a primary pine EOs as it classified all pine EOs correctly.

Iron and manganese migration in "soil-plant" system in Scots pine stands in conditions of contamination by the steel plant's emissions.

In this paper, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) roots grown in soils with and without contamination from emission of a plant steel were analyzed for Fe and Mn, as well as the shoots and needles with and lacking pollution. The aim was to assess the content of Fe and Mn in soils under given conditions, and the interaction between pine plant and soil in terms of metal accumulation in the fine roots, annual shoots, and annual needles. The iron content in the soil of polluted areas does not contrast with its control amount. Conversely, the iron content in fine pine roots under contamination conditions is 2.1-4.4 times higher than the control values. There were no significant excesses of the manganese content in the soil in polluted conditions compared to the control, but its content in the 0-20 cm soil layer is 27-32 times higher than the background concentrations. The iron contentment in belowground (fine roots) and aboveground (annual shoots and needles) parts of pine trees in a context of contamination is higher than the control values (2.1-4.4 and 1.50-1.54 times, respectively). The manganese content in fine pine roots under contamination conditions is 2.8-10.7 times less than in control, while its content in shoots and needles is higher (2.23-2.76 times) in comparison with the control. Based on the values of the biological accumulation and migration coefficients, what in each case slighter than one, for Scots pine the iron represent not an element that actively accumulates. Nevertheless, for manganese, this stock model is valid only for fine roots, whereas under the contaminated environment, the metal mobility steepen, and the migration pattern shifts towards increased manganese accumulation in the aboveground part of pine trees.

Accumulation of airborne potentially toxic elements in Pinus sylvestris L. bark collected in three Central European medium-sized cities.

This study attempts to identify the influence of various aspects of human activities in three medium-sized Central European cities (Cottbus, Germany; Nitra, Slovakia and Slupsk, Poland) on air contamination. For comparison purposes, bark of Pinus sylvestris L. was collected from polluted and non-polluted urban areas. Nine elements: Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Cr, Pb and S were determined using microwave plasma atomic emission spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry and elementary analyzer. Results of the study showed significant differences between the cities in term of elements content in pine bark. The differences reflected well specific character of the cities and various effects of human activity. Study revealed that elements spatial variability among the cities is driven by the factor loadings character and reflects various emission sources and their impact range.

SNP marker development in Pinus sylvestris L. in stress-responsive genes characterized from Pinus cembra L. transcriptomes.

Massively parallel sequencing of cDNA is an efficient route for generating sequence collections that represent expressed genes under different environmental control. The analysis of their sequence helps in developing molecular markers, such as SNPs, which represent a useful tool in detecting adaptive signals in populations. In this study novel PCR markers, based on stress responsive genes, were designed from the transcriptome of the haploxylon Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra L.) and tested for SNPs in the diploxylon Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). 84 primers were tested on P. sylvestris DNA samples originating from three different types of habitat. After sequencing and BLAST search of the amplified products, parts of 19 different candidate genes were analysed by considering the polymorphic sites, insertions/deletions as well as synonymous and non-synonymous SNPs. In a total of 3735 sites no indels, eight synonymous and 11 non-synonymous SNPs were found. By providing de novo molecular markers developed in P. cembra and tested for transferability in Scots pine, our results give support for the use of de novo markers targeting conserved regions across different pines. The SNPs detected may have important applications in further studies of adaptive genetic variation, providing tools to study relevant genes important in the long-term adaptation of pine species.

Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) bark proanthocyanidins affords prevention of peroxynitrite-induced l-tyrosine nitration, DNA damage and hydroxyl radical formation.

Peroxynitrite is known as a strong deleterious species that may readily trigger several geriatric diseases via injuring cellular constituents. Proanthocyanidins, a biological flavonoids constituent of Pinus sylvestris L. bark, has been attributed a large variety of pharmacological functions to its antioxidant potential. The results revealed that peroxynitrite could cause the generation of hydroxyl radical, the breakage of φX-174 plasmid DNA brand as well as the nitration of L-tyrosine. However, pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) bark proanthocyanidins extracts at low concentration range markedly inhibited the peroxynitrite -induced the formation of open circular DNA form (IC50 = 5.03±0.39 mg/mL). The 3-Nitro-L-tyrosine generated by the reaction of peroxynitrite with L-tyrosine was reduced by PBP (IC50 = 1.01±0.01 mg/mL). Besides, electron spin resonance spectroscopy data indicates that the intensive signal of dimethyl pyridine N-oxide hydroxyl radical adduct from peroxynitrite was reversed by pine bark proanthocyanidins extracts (IC50 =1.02±0.04 mg/mL). Moreover, the obtained data shows that PBP provides more efficient protection against peroxynitrite than that of ascorbic acid. Together, the present study suggests that pine bark proanthocyanidins could exert potent preventive activity against peroxynitrite -elicited cytotoxicity on the biomacromolecules, a study-worthy finding with pharmacological importance.

Intraspecific perspective of phenotypic coordination of functional traits in Scots pine.

Functional traits have emerged as a key to understand species responses to environmental conditions. The concerted expression of multiple traits gives rise to the phenotype of each individual, which is the one interacting with the environment and evolving. However, patterns of trait covariation and how they vary in response to environmental conditions remain poorly understood, particularly at the intraspecific scale. Here, we have measured traits at different scales and in different organs, and analysed their covariation in a large number of conspecifics distributed in two contrasting environments. We expected significant correlations among traits, not only within clusters of traits as found in global, multispecies studies, but also among clusters, with more relationships within clusters, due to genetic constraints, and among clusters due to more coordinated phenotypes than community level, multispecies studies. We surveyed 100 Pinus sylvestris trees in a Mediterranean mountainous area distributed in two contrasting elevations. We measured 13 functional traits, in three clusters (leaf, stem and whole-plant traits), and analysed their variation and coordination. We found significant coordination among traits belonging to different clusters that reveals coordinated phenotypes. However, we found fewer correlations within trait clusters than initially expected. Trait correlation structures (number, intensity and type of correlations among traits) differed among individuals at different elevations. We observed more correlations within trait clusters at low elevation compared to those at high elevation. Moreover, the higher number of correlations among different trait clusters and the lower trait variation at the higher elevation suggests that variability decreases under more stressful conditions. Altogether, our results reveal that traits at intraspecific scale are coordinated in a broad network and not only within clusters of traits but also that this trait covariation is significantly affected by environmental conditions.

The current state of environmental pollution with sulfur dioxide (SO2) in Poland based on sulfur concentration in Scots pine needles.

The current air pollution by SO2 due to anthropogenic pressure in Poland was assessed based on sulfur concentrations in pine needles (Pinus sylvestris L.). On 308 monitoring sample plots located in pine stands distributed across Poland, measurements were conducted in mineral soil layers (0-10 cm, 10-40 cm, 40-100 cm) and in the soil organic layer (+5-0 cm). Samples of Scots pine foliage (current-year needles) were then collected, and the sulfur concentration in these needles was determined. Based on these data, a map of the spatial variability of sulfur concentrations in pine needles was drawn. The mean sulfur concentration in the pine needles was 854.8 mg kg-1 in dry mass. Higher SO2 emissions were noted in regions influenced by industry, such as the Upper Silesia and regions under strong urban pressure. Sulfur concentrations in Scots pine needles were related to the stands' degrees of defoliation. A comparison of the current sulfur concentrations in pine needles from biomonitoring in 2015-2016 with those from previous biomonitoring (in 1983-1985, by Dmuchowski and Bytnerowicz (1995) showed that air quality has improved and SO2 emissions have decreased.

Phytotoxic Effects of Commercial Eucalyptus citriodora, Lavandula angustifolia, and Pinus sylvestris Essential Oils on Weeds, Crops, and Invasive Species.

BACKGROUND: essential oils are well known for their pharmacological effectiveness as well as their repellent, insecticide, and herbicide activities. The emergence of resistant weeds, due to the overuse of synthetic herbicides, makes it necessary to find natural alternatives for weed control. The aim of this study was to evaluate the phytotoxic effects of Eucalyptus citriodora, Lavandula angustifolia, and Pinus sylvestris, three common commercial essential oils, on weeds (Portulaca oleracea, Lolium multiflorum, and Echinochloa crus-galli), food crops (tomato and cucumber), and the invasive species Nicotiana glauca. Methods: to determine herbicidal effects, essential oils were tested at different concentrations (0.125-1µL/mL). The index of germination and seedling length data were recorded over 14 days. RESULTS: the in vitro assays showed that L. angustifolia with linalool (38.7 ± 0.1%), 1,8-cineole (26.5 ± 0.1%), and camphor (14.2 ± 0.1%) as the main compounds showed the most phytotoxic effects affecting seed germination in weeds and tomato, and the aforementioned invasive species. L. multiflorum was the most sensitive weed, particularly to lavender essential oil, which decreased the growth of its hypocotyl and radicle by 87.8% and 76.7%, respectively, at a dose of 1 µL/mL. Cucumber was the most resistant food crop, with no significant reduction observed in seed germination and hypocotyl growth with E. citriodora and L. angustifolia essential oils. CONCLUSIONS: lavender essential oil represents a promising candidate for the development of effective and safe herbicides in the management of L. multiflorum affecting cucumber crops.

Cellular level chemical changes in Scots pine heartwood during incipient brown rot decay.

The heartwoods of many wood species have natural resistance to wood decay due to the accumulation of antifungal heartwood extractives. The natural durability of heartwoods has been extensively investigated, yet very little information is available on the initiation of heartwood decay. This experiment examined the onset of Rhodonia placenta brown rot decay in Scots pine heartwood in order to identify the key changes leading to heartwood decay. An imaging approach based on Raman imaging and multivariate image analysis revealed that the degradation of heartwood began in the innermost cell wall layers and then spread into the remaining cell walls and the middle lamella. Pinosylvins were extensively degraded in the cell walls, middle lamella and extractive deposits, while unidentified material most likely consisting of hemicelluloses and/or lipophilic extractives was removed from the inner cell wall layers. Changes similar to inner cell wall degradation were seen in the remaining cell walls in more advanced decay. The results indicate that the key change in incipient heartwood decay is the degradation of antifungal heartwood extractives. The inner cell wall degradation seen in this experiment may serve a nutritive purpose or facilitate the penetration of degradative agents into the cell walls and middle lamella.

Atmospheric depositions affect the growth patterns of Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris L.)-a long-term cause-effect monitoring study using biomarkers.

Recording the causes, effects, and effect mechanisms of vegetation health is crucial to understand process-pattern interactions in ecosystem processes. NOX and SOX in the form of air pollution are both triggers and sources of vegetation health that can have an effect on the local or the global level and whose impacts need to be monitored. In this study, the growth patterns in Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris L.) were studied in the context of changing atmospheric depositions in the lowlands of north-eastern Germany. Under the influence of atmospheric sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N) depositions, pine stands showed temporal variations in their normal growth behavior. In such cases, the patterns of normal growth can be suppressed or accelerated. Pine stands which were influenced by high S deposition up until 1990 changed from suppressed growth to accelerated growth by decreasing S, but increasing N depositions between 1990 and 2003. The cause of these changes in pine growth patterns was imbalances in S and N nutrition, in particular, enrichments of sulfate, non-protein nitrogen or arginine, and finally, also imbalances and deficiencies in phosphorus, glucose, and adenosine triphosphate in the needles. Our long-term monitoring study shows that biochemical markers (traits) are crucial bioindicators for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of tree vitality and growth patterns in Scots pines. Furthermore, we were able to show that NOX and SOX depositions need to be monitored locally to be able to assess the local effects of biomolecular markers on the growth patterns in Scots pine stands.