The Nuclear Matrix Protein SAFA Surveils Viral RNA and Facilitates Immunity by Activating Antiviral Enhancers and Super-enhancers.

Pathogen pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) trigger innate immune responses to invading pathogens. All known PRRs for viral RNA have extranuclear localization. However, for many viruses, replication generates dsRNA in the nucleus. Here, we show that the nuclear matrix protein SAFA (also known as HnRNPU) functions as a nuclear viral dsRNA sensor for both DNA and RNA viruses. Upon recognition of viral dsRNA, SAFA oligomerizes and activates the enhancers of antiviral genes, including IFNB1. Moreover, SAFA is required for the activation of super-enhancers, which direct vigorous immune gene transcription to establish the antiviral state. Myeloid-specific SAFA-deficient mice were more susceptible to lethal HSV-1 and VSV infection, with decreased type I IFNs. Thus, SAFA functions as a nuclear viral RNA sensor and trans-activator to bridge innate sensing with chromatin remodeling and potentiate robust antiviral responses.

NONO Detects the Nuclear HIV Capsid to Promote cGAS-Mediated Innate Immune Activation.

Detection of viruses by innate immune sensors induces protective antiviral immunity. The viral DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) is necessary for detection of HIV by human dendritic cells and macrophages. However, synthesis of HIV DNA during infection is not sufficient for immune activation. The capsid protein, which associates with viral DNA, has a pivotal role in enabling cGAS-mediated immune activation. We now find that NONO is an essential sensor of the HIV capsid in the nucleus. NONO protein directly binds capsid with higher affinity for weakly pathogenic HIV-2 than highly pathogenic HIV-1. Upon infection, NONO is essential for cGAS activation by HIV and cGAS association with HIV DNA in the nucleus. NONO recognizes a conserved region in HIV capsid with limited tolerance for escape mutations. Detection of nuclear viral capsid by NONO to promote DNA sensing by cGAS reveals an innate strategy to achieve distinction of viruses from self in the nucleus.

HEXIM1 and NEAT1 Long Non-coding RNA Form a Multi-subunit Complex that Regulates DNA-Mediated Innate Immune Response.

The DNA-mediated innate immune response underpins anti-microbial defenses and certain autoimmune diseases. Here we used immunoprecipitation, mass spectrometry, and RNA sequencing to identify a ribonuclear complex built around HEXIM1 and the long non-coding RNA NEAT1 that we dubbed the HEXIM1-DNA-PK-paraspeckle components-ribonucleoprotein complex (HDP-RNP). The HDP-RNP contains DNA-PK subunits (DNAPKc, Ku70, and Ku80) and paraspeckle proteins (SFPQ, NONO, PSPC1, RBM14, and MATRIN3). We show that binding of HEXIM1 to NEAT1 is required for its assembly. We further demonstrate that the HDP-RNP is required for the innate immune response to foreign DNA, through the cGAS-STING-IRF3 pathway. The HDP-RNP interacts with cGAS and its partner PQBP1, and their interaction is remodeled by foreign DNA. Remodeling leads to the release of paraspeckle proteins, recruitment of STING, and activation of DNAPKc and IRF3. Our study establishes the HDP-RNP as a key nuclear regulator of DNA-mediated activation of innate immune response through the cGAS-STING pathway.

NK cell heparanase controls tumor invasion and immune surveillance.

NK cells are highly efficient at preventing cancer metastasis but are infrequently found in the core of primary tumors. Here, have we demonstrated that freshly isolated mouse and human NK cells express low levels of the endo-ß-D-glucuronidase heparanase that increase upon NK cell activation. Heparanase deficiency did not affect development, differentiation, or tissue localization of NK cells under steady-state conditions. However, mice lacking heparanase specifically in NK cells (Hpsefl/fl NKp46-iCre mice) were highly tumor prone when challenged with the carcinogen methylcholanthrene (MCA). Hpsefl/fl NKp46-iCre mice were also more susceptible to tumor growth than were their littermate controls when challenged with the established mouse lymphoma cell line RMA-S-RAE-1ß, which overexpresses the NK cell group 2D (NKG2D) ligand RAE-1ß, or when inoculated with metastatic melanoma, prostate carcinoma, or mammary carcinoma cell lines. NK cell invasion of primary tumors and recruitment to the site of metastasis were strictly dependent on the presence of heparanase. Cytokine and immune checkpoint blockade immunotherapy for metastases was compromised when NK cells lacked heparanase. Our data suggest that heparanase plays a critical role in NK cell invasion into tumors and thereby tumor progression and metastases. This should be considered when systemically treating cancer patients with heparanase inhibitors, since the potential adverse effect on NK cell infiltration might limit the antitumor activity of the inhibitors.

Autoantibody to scaffold attachment factor B (SAFB): A novel connective tissue disease-related autoantibody associated with interstitial lung disease.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and characterize a novel connective tissue disease (CTD)-related autoantibody (autoAb) directed against scaffold attachment factor B (SAFB). METHODS: AutoAb specificity was analyzed using RNA and protein-immunoprecipitation assays. Autoimmune targets were affinity purified using patients' sera and subjected to liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. RESULTS: By immunoprecipitation assay, 10 sera reacted with a protein with a molecular weight of approximately 160 kDa. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry of the partially purified autoantigen and additional immunoblot-based analyses revealed that the Ab specifically recognized SAFB. Anti-SAFB Abs were detected in 2 of 646 patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc) (0.3%), 1 of 1570 patients with polymyositis/dermatomyositis (0.06%), 4 of 270 patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD) (1.5%), 1 of 43 patients with overlap syndrome (2.3%) and 2 patients with other diseases including primary Raynaud's disease and eosinophilic pneumonia. Five patients with anti-SAFB Abs had Raynaud's phenomenon and 3 had nail fold punctate hemorrhage. Of note, 8 of the 10 patients (80%) suffered from ILD. None of the patients with anti-SAFB Abs had pulmonary arterial hypertension, heart disease, or renal involvement. CONCLUSIONS: Anti-SAFB Ab is a novel CTD-related autoAb possibly associated with ILD.

Mice Deficient in CIZ/NMP4 Develop an Attenuated Form of K/BxN-Serum Induced Arthritis.

CIZ/NMP4 (Cas interacting zinc finger protein, Nmp4, Zfp384) is a transcription factor that is known to regulate matrix related-proteins. To explore the possible pathophysiological role of CIZ/NMP4 in arthritis, we examined CIZ/NMP4 expression in articular cartilage in arthritis model. CIZ/NMP4 was expressed in the articular chondrocytes of mice at low levels while its expression was enhanced when arthritis was induced. Arthritis induction increased clinical score in wild type mice. In contrast, CIZ/NMP4 deficiency suppressed such rise in the levels of arthritis score and swelling of soft tissue. CIZ/NMP4 deficiency also reduced invasion of inflammatory cells in joint tissue. Quantitative PCR analyses of mRNA from joints revealed that arthritis-induced increase in expressions of IL-1ß was suppressed by CIZ/NMP4 deficiency. CIZ/NMP4 bound to IL-1ß promoter and activated its transcription. The increase in CIZ/NMP4 in arthritis was also associated with enhancement in bone resorption and cartilage matrix degradation. In fact, RANKL, a signaling molecule prerequisite for osteoclastogenesis and, MMP-3, a clinical marker for arthritis were increased in joints upon arthritis induction. In contrast, CIZ/NMP4 deficiency suppressed the arthritis-induced increase in bone resorption, expression of RANKL and MMP-3 mRNA. Thus, CIZ/NMP4 plays a role in the development of arthritis at least in part through regulation of key molecules related to the arthritis.

Accumulation and activation of epidermal γδ T cells in a mouse model of chronic dermatitis is not required for the inflammatory phenotype.

Chronic skin inflammation resulting from a defective epidermal barrier is a hallmark of atopic dermatitis (AD). We previously demonstrated that mice lacking FGF receptors 1 and 2 in keratinocytes (K5-R1/R2 mice) develop an AD-like chronic dermatitis as a result of an impaired epidermal barrier. Here, we show that γδ T cells, which rapidly respond to various insults, accumulate in the epidermis of K5-R1/R2 mice before the development of histological abnormalities. Their number and activation further increase as the phenotype progresses, most likely as a consequence of increased expression of Il-2 and Il-7 and the stress-induced proteins Rae-1, H60c, Mult1, PlexinB2, and Skint1. To determine the role of γδ T cells in the skin phenotype, we generated quadruple mutant K5-R1/-R2 mice lacking γδ T cells. Surprisingly, loss of γδ T cells did not or only marginally affect keratinocyte proliferation, epidermal thickness, epidermal barrier function, and accumulation and activation of different immune cells in the skin of K5-R1/R2 mice, possibly due to partial compensation by αß T cells. These results demonstrate that γδ T cells do not contribute to the development or maintenance of chronic inflammation in response to a defect in the epidermal barrier.

The spindle matrix protein, Chromator, is a novel tubulin binding protein that can interact with both microtubules and free tubulin.

The chromodomain protein, Chromator, is localized to chromosomes during interphase; however, during cell division together with other nuclear proteins Chromator redistributes to form a macro molecular spindle matrix complex that embeds the microtubule spindle apparatus. It has been demonstrated that the CTD of Chromator is sufficient for localization to the spindle matrix and that expression of this domain alone could partially rescue Chro mutant microtubule spindle defects. Furthermore, the presence of frayed and unstable microtubule spindles during mitosis after Chromator RNAi depletion in S2 cells indicated that Chromator may interact with microtubules. In this study using a variety of biochemical assays we have tested this hypothesis and show that Chromator not only has binding activity to microtubules with a Kd of 0.23 µM but also to free tubulin. Furthermore, we have mapped the interaction with microtubules to a relatively small stretch of 139 amino acids in the carboxy-terminal region of Chromator. This sequence is likely to contain a novel microtubule binding interface since database searches did not find any sequence matches with known microtubule binding motifs.

NK cell-extrinsic IL-18 signaling is required for efficient NK-cell activation by vaccinia virus.

NK cells are important for the control of vaccinia virus (VV) in vivo. Recent studies have shown that multiple pathways are required for effective activation of NK cells. These include both TLR-dependent and -independent pathways, as well as the NKG2D activating receptor that recognizes host stress-induced NKG2D ligands. However, it remains largely unknown what controls the upregulation of NKG2D ligands in response to VV infection. In this study using C57BL/6 mice, we first showed that IL-18 is critical for NK-cell activation and viral clearance. We then demonstrated that IL-18 signaling on both NK cells and DCs is required for efficient NK-cell activation upon VV infection in vitro. We further showed in vivo that efficient NK-cell activation in response to VV is dependent on DCs and IL-18 signaling in non-NK cells, suggesting an essential role for NK cell-extrinsic IL-18 signaling in NK-cell activation. Mechanistically, IL-18 signaling in DCs promotes expression of Rae-1, an NKG2D ligand. Collectively, our data reveal a previously unrecognized role for NK cell-extrinsic IL-18 signaling in NK-cell activation through upregulation of NKG2D ligands. These observations may provide insights into the design of effective NK-cell-based therapies for viral infections and cancer.

RAE1 ligands for the NKG2D receptor are regulated by STING-dependent DNA sensor pathways in lymphoma.

The immunoreceptor NKG2D originally identified in natural killer (NK) cells recognizes ligands that are upregulated on tumor cells. Expression of NKG2D ligands (NKG2DL) is induced by the DNA damage response (DDR), which is often activated constitutively in cancer cells, revealing them to NK cells as a mechanism of immunosurveillance. Here, we report that the induction of retinoic acid early transcript 1 (RAE1) ligands for NKG2D by the DDR relies on a STING-dependent DNA sensor pathway involving the effector molecules TBK1 and IRF3. Cytosolic DNA was detected in lymphoma cell lines that express RAE1 and its occurrence required activation of the DDR. Transfection of DNA into ligand-negative cells was sufficient to induce RAE1 expression. Irf3(+/-);Eµ-Myc mice expressed lower levels of RAE1 on tumor cells and showed a reduced survival rate compared with Irf3(+/+);Eµ-Myc mice. Taken together, our results suggest that genomic damage in tumor cells leads to activation of STING-dependent DNA sensor pathways, thereby activating RAE1 and enabling tumor immunosurveillance.

Mouse tumor vasculature expresses NKG2D ligands and can be targeted by chimeric NKG2D-modified T cells.

Tumor angiogenesis plays an important role in the development of solid tumors, and targeting the tumor vasculature has emerged as a strategy to prevent growth and progression of solid tumors. In this study, we show that murine tumor vasculature expresses Rae1, a ligand for a stimulatory NK receptor NKG2D. By genetic modification of T cells with an NKG2D-based chimeric Ag receptor, referred to as chNKG2D in which the NKG2D receptor is fused to the signaling domain of CD3ζ-chain, T cells were capable of targeting tumor vasculature leading to reduced tumor angiogenesis and tumor growth. This occurred even in tumors where the tumor cells themselves did not express NKG2D ligands. H5V, an endothelial cell line, expresses Rae1 and was lysed by chNKG2D-bearing T cells in a perforin-dependent manner. In vitro capillary tube formation was inhibited by chNKG2D T cells through IFN-γ and cell-cell contact mechanisms. The in vivo antiangiogenesis effects mediated by chNKG2D-bearing T cells at the tumor site were dependent on IFN-γ and perforin. These results provide a novel mechanism for NKG2D-based targeting of solid tumors.

Gut microbiota regulates NKG2D ligand expression on intestinal epithelial cells.

Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) are one of a few cell types in the body with constitutive surface expression of natural killer group 2 member D (NKG2D) ligands, although the magnitude of ligand expression by IECs varies. Here, we investigated whether the gut microbiota regulates the NKG2D ligand expression on small IECs. Germ-free and ampicillin-treated mice were shown to have a significant increase in NKG2D ligand expression. Interestingly, vancomycin treatment, which propagated the bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila and reduced the level of IFN-γ and IL-15 in the intestine, decreased the NKG2D ligand expression on IECs. In addition, a similar increase in A. muciniphila and a decreased NKG2D ligand expression was seen after feeding with dietary xylooligosaccharides. A pronounced increase in NKG2D ligand expression was furthermore observed in IL-10-deficient mice. In summary, our results suggest that the constitutive levels of NKG2D ligand expression on IECs are regulated by microbial signaling in the gut and further disfavor the intuitive notion that IEC NKG2D ligand expression is caused by low-grade immune reaction against commensal bacteria. It is more likely that constitutively high IEC NKG2D ligand expression is kept in check by an intestinal regulatory immune milieu induced by members of the gut microbiota, for example A. muciniphila.

A dual function of NKG2D ligands in NK-cell activation.

NK-cell killing requires both the expression of activating receptor ligands and low MHC class I expression by target cells. Here we demonstrate that the expression of any of the murine ligands for the NK-cell activating receptor NKG2D results in a concomitant reduction in MHC class I expression. We show this both in tumor cell lines and in vivo. NK-cell lysis is enhanced by the decrease in MHC class I expression, suggesting the change is biologically relevant. These results demonstrate that NKG2D ligand expression on target cells not only allows for activating receptor recognition, but also actively reduces expression of the inhibitory ligand, MHC class I, leading to enhanced recognition and killing by NK cells.

Anti-NuMA1 and anti-NuMA2 (anti-HsEg5) antibodies: Clinical and immunological features: A propos of 40 new cases and review of the literature.

OBJECTIVE: Anti-NuMA1 and anti-NuMA2 antibodies are antinuclear antibodies (ANA) targeting the mitotic spindle apparatus. Our objective was to determine their clinical and immunological features and to review the literature available data. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Between 2004 and 2008, 36,498 sera were analyzed for the presence of ANA, which included anti-NuMA1 and anti-NuMA2 antibodies. Clinical and immunological features of patients with positive anti-NuMA1 and anti-NuMA2 antibodies (titer> or =1/320) were retrospectively collected and analyzed. A review of the literature was secondly performed. RESULTS: Out of the 36,498 sera analyzed, 10,585 sera were positive for ANA (29%). Out of ANA positive sera, 40 sera (0.38%) (40 different patients) were positive for anti-NuMA antibodies: 27 anti-NuMA1 (0.26%) and 13 anti-NuMA2 (0.12%). Compared to anti-NuMA2 positive patients, anti-NuMA1 positive patients were more often female (81.5% versus 46%; P=0.03), had more frequently a connective tissue disease (CTD) (40.7% versus 0%; P=0.016) and higher serum titers (877+/-466 versus 443+/-278; P=0.007). The anti-NuMA1 positive CTD were either Sjögren's syndrome (SS) (54.5%) or systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) (45.5%). In the literature, 164 anti-NuMA positive patients (133 anti-NuMA1 and 31 anti-NuMA2) have been reported. Combining the reported cases to ours, up to 67.5% of anti-NuMA positive patients had an autoimmune disease, mostly pSS in 34% (31/90) and SLE in 31% (28/90). Anti-NuMA1 antibodies were the single positive ANA in 46% of anti-NuMA1 positive SS and 47% of anti-NuMA1 positive SLE, and anti-NuMA2 antibodies in 2/2 and 87.5%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Detection of anti-NuMA1 and anti-NuMA2 antibodies is very uncommon. When present, they are mostly associated with connective tissue disease, mainly Sjögren syndrome and systemic lupus. Clinicians may be aware that in these latter conditions, anti-NuMA antibodies may be the single serological marker.

NK cells induce apoptosis in tubular epithelial cells and contribute to renal ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) can result in acute renal failure with mortality rates of 50% in severe cases. NK cells are important participants in early-stage innate immune responses. However, their role in renal tubular epithelial cell (TEC) injury in IRI is currently unknown. Our data indicate that NK cells can kill syngeneic TEC in vitro. Apoptotic death of TEC in vitro is associated with TEC expression of the NK cell ligand Rae-1, as well as NKG2D on NK cells. In vivo following IRI, there was increased expression of Rae-1 on TEC. FACS analyses of kidney cell preparations indicated a quantitative increase in NKG2D-bearing NK cells within the kidney following IRI. NK cell depletion in wild-type C57BL/6 mice was protective, while adoptive transfer of NK cells worsened injury in NK, T, and B cell-null Rag2(-/-)gamma(c)(-/-) mice with IRI. NK cell-mediated kidney injury was perforin (PFN)-dependent as PFN(-/-) NK cells had minimal capacity to kill TEC in vitro compared with NK cells from wild-type, FasL-deficient (gld), or IFN-gamma(-/-) mice. Taken together, these results demonstrate for the first time that NK cells can directly kill TEC and that NK cells contribute substantially to kidney IRI. NK cell killing may represent an important underrecognized mechanism of kidney injury in diverse forms of inflammation, including transplantation.

Antibodies to mitotic spindle apparatus: clinical significance of NuMA and HsEg5 autoantibodies.

INTRODUCTION: The clinical associations of NuMA and HsEg5 antibodies, the main anti-mitotic spindle apparatus autoantibodies, remain unclear due to their extremely low prevalence. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We have analysed the clinical data of 40 anti-NuMA- (0.87 per thousand) and 7 anti-HsEg5- (0.15 per thousand) positive patients detected during routine immunofluorescence examination of 45,804 sera. NuMA reactivity was further confirmed by immunoblotting. RESULTS: Antibodies to HsEg5 did not associate with any specific pathology. NuMA positivity associated with a diagnosis of connective tissue disease (CTD) in 18 patients (45%), primary Sjögren or sicca syndrome and undifferentiated connective tissue disease being the most represented. Seven patients (17.5%) were diagnosed with different organ-specific autoimmune diseases, whereas in the other 15 patients (37.5%), no autoimmune pathology could be documented. CONCLUSIONS: Therefore, although both anti-mitotic spindle apparatus antibodies are not associated to a defined autoimmune pathology, the presence of NuMA antibodies, mainly at high titers, may be an indication for a more extensive screening of CTD.

Liaisons dangereuses: P2X(7) and the inflammasome.

Inflammation is initiated by specific pathogen constituents, in addition to intrinsic host molecules that are released by injured or dying cells. Among such host endogenous pro-inflammatory factors, nucleotides (mainly ATP) are attracting increasing interest for their potential as natural adjuvants. Extracellular ATP stimulates a family of receptors, named P2, one of which, P2X(7), is a potent mediator of interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-18 processing and release. The mechanism and physiological significance of this unusual pro-inflammatory activity have long remained elusive. Recent data unveiling the structure and function of a novel caspase-activating platform, the inflammasome, shed light on P2X(7) receptor coupling to IL-1beta release, and suggest a fascinating scenario for the initiation and amplification of the innate immune response. Here, I outline the intriguing links between the P2X(7) receptor and the NALP3 inflammasome, review recent evidence showing that this receptor is a potent activator of this multimolecular platform and discuss implications for pathogen-immune cell interaction and for anti-inflammatory drug development.

Chimeric NKG2D receptor-bearing T cells as immunotherapy for ovarian cancer.

Despite advancements in the treatment of ovarian cancer, this disease continues to be a leading cause of cancer death in women. Adoptive transfer of tumor-reactive T cells is a promising antitumor therapy for many cancers. We designed a chimeric receptor linking NKG2D, a natural killer (NK) cell-activating receptor, to the CD3zeta chain of the T-cell receptor to target ovarian tumor cells. Engagement of chimeric NKG2D receptors (chNKG2D) with ligands for NKG2D, which are commonly expressed on tumor cells, leads to T-cell secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and tumor cytotoxicity. In this study, we show that >80% of primary human ovarian cancer samples expressed ligands for NKG2D on the cell surface. The tumor samples expressed MHC class I-related protein A, MICB, and UL-16 binding proteins 1 and 3. ChNKG2D-expressing T cells lysed ovarian cancer cell lines. We show that T cells from ovarian cancer patients that express chNKG2D secreted proinflammatory cytokines when cultured with autologous tumor cells. In addition, we show that chNKG2D T cells can be used therapeutically in a murine model of ovarian cancer. These data indicate that treatment with chNKG2D-expressing T cells is a potential immunotherapy for ovarian cancer.

Spatial distribution of actin and tubulin in human sperm nuclear matrix-intermediate filament whole mounts-a new paradigm.

Sperm is a highly differentiated cell streamlined for fertilization. The function is thus heavily dependent on the cytoskeletal organization. Conventional methods limit the appreciation and correlation of this intricate cytoskeletal filament network in the context of an entire sperm. Our recent successful localization of nonmuscle myosin IIA on sperm nuclear matrix-intermediate filament (NM-IF) preparations from fertile men by embedment-free electron microscopy (EF-EM), prompted us to investigate the antigenic distribution of two major cytoskeletal proteins-actin and tubulin. The NM-IF preparations were subjected to a cocktail of buffered paraformaldehyde (2%) with a low concentration of glutaraldehyde (0.05%). These proteins were localized by indirect immunogold technique using EF-EM on sperm NM-IF whole mounts. Ultrastructure analysis revealed well preserved centrioles, outer dense fibers, axonemal filaments, and submitochondrial reticulum in the sperm NM-IF. Immunoreactive actin was localized along the length of the sperm whereas beta-tubulin was present in the axoneme alone. The spatial distribution of actin and tubulin in normal human sperm NM-IF reported here together with that of myosin on whole mount offers a powerful technique to understand sperm cytoskeletal supramolecular structure.

Purification and identification of proteins that bind to the hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin -198 mutation in the gamma-globin gene promoter.

Expression of the gamma-globin gene is silenced in adult humans. However, certain point mutations in the gamma-globin gene promoter are capable of maintaining expression of this gene during adult erythropoiesis, a condition called non-deletion hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HPFH). Among these, the British form of HPFH carrying a T-->C point mutation at position -198 of the Agamma-globin gene promoter results in 4-10% fetal hemoglobin in heterozygotes. In this study, we used nuclear extracts from murine erythroleukemia cells to purify a protein complex that binds the HPFH -198 gamma-globin gene promoter. Members of this protein complex were identified by mass spectrometry and include DNMT1, the transcriptional coactivator p52, the protein SNEV, and RAP74 (the largest subunit of the general transcription factor IIF). Sp1, which was previously considered responsible for HPFH -198 gamma-globin gene activation, was not identified. The potential role of these proteins in the reactivation and/or maintenance of gamma-globin gene expression in the adult transcriptional environment is discussed.