Clustering of Aromatic Residues in Prion-like Domains Can Tune the Formation, State, and Organization of Biomolecular Condensates.

In immature oocytes, Balbiani bodies are conserved membraneless condensates implicated in oocyte polarization, the organization of mitochondria, and long-term organelle and RNA storage. In Xenopus laevis, Balbiani body assembly is mediated by the protein Velo1. Velo1 contains an N-terminal prion-like domain (PLD) that is essential for Balbiani body formation. PLDs have emerged as a class of intrinsically disordered regions that can undergo various different types of intracellular phase transitions and are often associated with dynamic, liquid-like condensates. Intriguingly, the Velo1 PLD forms solid-like assemblies. Here we sought to understand why Velo1 phase behavior appears to be biophysically distinct from that of other PLD-containing proteins. Through bioinformatic analysis and coarse-grained simulations, we predict that the clustering of aromatic residues and the amino acid composition of residues between aromatics can influence condensate material properties, organization, and the driving forces for assembly. To test our predictions, we redesigned the Velo1 PLD to test the impact of targeted sequence changes in vivo. We found that the Velo1 design with evenly spaced aromatic residues shows rapid internal dynamics, as probed by fluorescent recovery after photobleaching, even when recruited into Balbiani bodies. Our results suggest that Velo1 might have been selected in evolution for distinctly clustered aromatic residues to maintain the structure of Balbiani bodies in long-lived oocytes. In general, our work identifies several tunable parameters that can be used to augment the condensate material state, offering a road map for the design of synthetic condensates.

Transcriptional regulation of human T-box 5 gene (TBX5) by bone- and cardiac-related transcription factors.

T-box 5 (TBX5) protein belongs to the T-box family whose members play a crucial role in cell-type specification, morphogenesis and organogenesis. TBX5 is a transcription factor important for cardiac development and upper limbs formation and its haploinsufficiency causes Holt-Oram syndrome (HOS). An increase in TBX5 dosage also leads to HOS, suggesting that TBX5 is a dose-sensitive transcription factor that needs to be tightly regulated but the molecular mechanisms involved remain unclear. In this work we report the cloning and functional analysis of human TBX5 promoter region 1 (upstream of exon 1) and promoter region 2 (upstream of exon 2), that probably regulate the transcription of the different transcript variants. In silico analysis showed several binding sites for cardiac and skeletal related transcription factors (TFs) and their functionality was assessed using promoter-luciferase constructions and TF-expressing vectors. MEF2A (Myocyte enhancer factor 2 A) was shown to positively regulate both TBX5 promoters, while EGR1 (early growth response 1) repressed both promoters. SOX9 (SRY (sex determining region Y)-box 9) repressed only the activity of promoter region 2. Interestingly, YY1 (Yin and yang 1) repressed promoter region 1 (that regulates the expression of variant 1 and 3), but activated promoter region 2 (that regulates the expression of variant 4). In conclusion, this work provides novel insights toward the better understanding of TBX5 transcriptional regulation by cardiac- and skeletal-related TFs.

Human T-bet Governs Innate and Innate-like Adaptive IFN-γ Immunity against Mycobacteria.

Inborn errors of human interferon gamma (IFN-γ) immunity underlie mycobacterial disease. We report a patient with mycobacterial disease due to inherited deficiency of the transcription factor T-bet. The patient has extremely low counts of circulating Mycobacterium-reactive natural killer (NK), invariant NKT (iNKT), mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT), and Vδ2+ γδ T lymphocytes, and of Mycobacterium-non reactive classic TH1 lymphocytes, with the residual populations of these cells also producing abnormally small amounts of IFN-γ. Other lymphocyte subsets develop normally but produce low levels of IFN-γ, with the exception of CD8+ αß T and non-classic CD4+ αß TH1∗ lymphocytes, which produce IFN-γ normally in response to mycobacterial antigens. Human T-bet deficiency thus underlies mycobacterial disease by preventing the development of innate (NK) and innate-like adaptive lymphocytes (iNKT, MAIT, and Vδ2+ γδ T cells) and IFN-γ production by them, with mycobacterium-specific, IFN-γ-producing, purely adaptive CD8+ αß T, and CD4+ αß TH1∗ cells unable to compensate for this deficit.

Functionally distinct roles for T and Tbx6 during mouse development.

The mouse T-box transcription factors T and Tbx6 are co-expressed in the primitive streak and have unique domains of expression; T is expressed in the notochord, while Tbx6 is expressed in the presomitic mesoderm. T-box factors are related through a shared DNA binding domain, the T-domain, and can therefore bind to similar DNA sequences at least in vitro We investigated the functional similarities and differences of T and Tbx6 DNA binding and transcriptional activity in vitro and their interaction genetically in vivo We show that at one target, Dll1, the T-domains of T and Tbx6 have different affinities for the binding sites present in the mesoderm enhancer. We further show using in vitro assays that T and Tbx6 differentially affect transcription with Tbx6 activating expression tenfold higher than T, that T and Tbx6 can compete at target gene enhancers, and that this competition requires a functional DNA binding domain. Next, we addressed whether T and Tbx6 can compete in vivo First, we generated embryos that express Tbx6 at greater than wild-type levels embryos and show that these embryos have short tails, resembling the T heterozygous phenotype. Next, using the dominant-negative TWis allele, we show that Tbx6+/- TWis/+ embryos share similarities with embryos homozygous for the Tbx6 hypomorphic allele rib-vertebrae, specifically fusions of several ribs and malformation of some vertebrae. Finally, we tested whether Tbx6 can functionally replace T using a knockin approach, which resulted in severe T null-like phenotypes in chimeric embryos generated with ES cells heterozygous for a Tbx6 knockin at the T locus. Altogether, our results of differences in affinity for DNA binding sites and transcriptional activity for T and Tbx6 provide a potential mechanism for the failure of Tbx6 to functionally replace T and possible competition phenotypes in vivo.

Tbx2 mediates dorsal patterning and germ layer suppression through inhibition of BMP/GDF and Activin/Nodal signaling.

BACKGROUND: Members of the T-box family of DNA-binding proteins play a prominent role in the differentiation of the three primary germ layers. VegT, Brachyury, and Eomesodermin function as transcriptional activators and, in addition to directly activating the transcription of endoderm- and mesoderm-specific genes, serve as regulators of growth factor signaling during induction of these germ layers. In contrast, the T-box gene, tbx2, is expressed in the embryonic ectoderm, where Tbx2 functions as a transcriptional repressor and inhibits mesendodermal differentiation by the TGFß ligand Activin. Tbx2 misexpression also promotes dorsal ectodermal fate via inhibition of the BMP branch of the TGFß signaling network. RESULTS: Here, we report a physical association between Tbx2 and both Smad1 and Smad2, mediators of BMP and Activin/Nodal signaling, respectively. We perform structure/function analysis of Tbx2 to elucidate the roles of both Tbx2-Smad interaction and Tbx2 DNA-binding in germ layer suppression. CONCLUSION: Our studies demonstrate that Tbx2 associates with intracellular mediators of the Activin/Nodal and BMP/GDF pathways. We identify a novel repressor domain within Tbx2, and have determined that Tbx2 DNA-binding activity is required for repression of TGFß signaling. Finally, our data also point to overlapping yet distinct mechanisms for Tbx2-mediated repression of Activin/Nodal and BMP/GDF signaling.

TBX6 missense variants expand the mutational spectrum in a non-Mendelian inheritance disease.

Congenital scoliosis (CS) is a birth defect with variable clinical and anatomical manifestations due to spinal malformation. The genetic etiology underlying about 10% of CS cases in the Chinese population is compound inheritance by which the gene dosage is reduced below that of haploinsufficiency. In this genetic model, the trait manifests as a result of the combined effect of a rare variant and common pathogenic variant allele at a locus. From exome sequencing (ES) data of 523 patients in Asia and two patients in Texas, we identified six TBX6 gene-disruptive variants from 11 unrelated CS patients via ES and in vitro functional testing. The in trans mild hypomorphic allele was identified in 10 of the 11 subjects; as anticipated these 10 shared a similar spinal deformity of hemivertebrae. The remaining case has a homozygous variant in TBX6 (c.418C>T) and presents a more severe spinal deformity phenotype. We found decreased transcriptional activity and abnormal cellular localization as the molecular mechanisms for TBX6 missense loss-of-function alleles. Expanding the mutational spectrum of TBX6 pathogenic alleles enabled an increased molecular diagnostic detection rate, provided further evidence for the gene dosage-dependent genetic model underlying CS, and refined clinical classification.

Isoform-specific promotion of breast cancer tumorigenicity by TBX3 involves induction of angiogenesis.

TBX3 is a member of the highly conserved family of T-box transcription factors involved in embryogenesis, organogenesis and tumor progression. While the functional role of TBX3 in tumorigenesis has been widely studied, less is known about the specific functions of the different isoforms (TBX3iso1 and TBX3iso2) which differ in their DNA-binding domain. We therefore sought to investigate the functional consequence of this highly conserved splice event as it relates to TBX3-induced tumorigenesis. By utilizing a nude mouse xenograft model, we have identified differential tumorigenic potential between TBX3 isoforms, with TBX3iso1 overexpression more commonly associated with invasive carcinoma and high tumor vascularity. Transcriptional analysis of signaling pathways altered by TBX3iso1 and TBX3iso2 overexpression revealed significant differences in angiogenesis-related genes. Importantly, osteopontin (OPN), a cancer-associated secreted phosphoprotein, was significantly up-regulated with TBX3iso1 (but not TBX3iso2) overexpression. This pattern was observed across three non/weakly-tumorigenic breast cancer cell lines (21PT, 21NT, and MCF7). Up-regulation of OPN in TBX3iso1 overexpressing cells was associated with induction of hyaluronan synthase 2 (HAS2) expression and increased retention of hyaluronan in pericellular matrices. These transcriptional changes were accompanied by the ability to induce endothelial cell vascular channel formation by conditioned media in vitro, which could be inhibited through addition of an OPN neutralizing antibody. Within the TCGA breast cancer cohort, we identified an 8.1-fold higher TBX3iso1 to TBX3iso2 transcript ratio in tumors relative to control, and this ratio was positively associated with high-tumor grade and an aggressive molecular subtype. Collectively, the described changes involving TBX3iso1-dependent promotion of angiogenesis may thus serve as an adaptive mechanism within breast cancer cells, potentially explaining differences in tumor formation rates between TBX3 isoforms in vivo. This study is the first of its kind to report significant functional differences between the two TBX3 isoforms, both in vitro and in vivo.

TBX1 is required for normal stria vascularis and semicircular canal development.

Little is known about the role of TBX1 in post-otocyst stages of inner ear development. Here, we report on mice with a missense mutation of Tbx1 that are viable with fully developed but abnormally formed inner ears. Mutant mice are deaf due to an undeveloped stria vascularis and show vestibular dysfunction associated with abnormal semicircular canal formation. We show that TBX1 is expressed in endolymph-producing strial marginal cells and vestibular dark cells of the inner ear and is an upstream regulator of Esrrb, which previously was shown to control the developmental fate of these cells. We also show that TBX1 is expressed in sensory cells of the crista ampullaris, which may relate to the semicircular canal abnormalities observed in mutant mice. Inner ears of mutant embryos have a non-resorbed fusion plate in the posterior semicircular canal and a single ampulla connecting anterior and lateral canals. We hypothesize that the TBX1 missense mutation prevents binding with specific co-regulatory proteins. These findings reveal previously unknown functions of TBX1 during later stages of inner ear development.

Structural basis for tRNA decoding and aminoacylation sensing by T-box riboregulators.

T-box riboregulators are a class of cis-regulatory RNAs that govern the bacterial response to amino acid starvation by binding, decoding and reading the aminoacylation status of specific transfer RNAs. Here we provide a high-resolution crystal structure of a full-length T-box from Mycobacterium tuberculosis that explains tRNA decoding and aminoacylation sensing by this riboregulator. Overall, the T-box consists of decoding and aminoacylation sensing modules bridged by a rigid pseudoknot structure formed by the mid-region domains. Stem-I and the Stem-II S-turn assemble a claw-like decoding module, while the antiterminator, Stem-III, and the adjacent linker form a tightly interwoven aminoacylation sensing module. The uncharged tRNA is selectively recognized by an unexpected set of favorable contacts from the linker region in the aminoacylation sensing module. A complex structure with a charged tRNA mimic shows that the extra moiety dislodges the linker, which is indicative of the possible chain of events that lead to alternative base-pairing and altered expression output.

Transcriptional autoregulation of zebrafish tbx6 is required for somite segmentation.

The presumptive somite boundary in the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) is defined by the anterior border of the expression domain of Tbx6 protein. During somite segmentation, the expression domain of Tbx6 is regressed by Ripply-meditated degradation of Tbx6 protein. Although the expression of zebrafish tbx6 remains restricted to the PSM, the transcriptional regulation of tbx6 remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the expression of zebrafish tbx6 is maintained by transcriptional autoregulation. We find that a proximal-located cis-regulatory module, TR1, which contains two putative T-box sites, is required for somite segmentation in the intermediate body and for proper expression of segmentation genes. Embryos with deletion of TR1 exhibit significant reduction of tbx6 expression at the 12-somite stage, although its expression is initially observed. Additionally, Tbx6 is associated with TR1 and activates its own expression in the anterior PSM. Furthermore, the anterior expansion of tbx6 expression in ripply gene mutants is suppressed in a TR1-dependent manner. The results suggest that the autoregulatory loop of zebrafish tbx6 facilitates immediate removal of Tbx6 protein through termination of its own transcription at the anterior PSM.

T-box transcription factor eomesodermin/Tbr2 in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.): Molecular characterization, promoter structure and function analysis.

Eomesodermin (Eomes) is a member of T-box transcription factor family and plays an important role in the regulation of a wide variety of developmental processes and immune response in animals. Here we report cloning and characterization of the full-length cDNA of Atlantic cod Eomes (GmEomes), which possesses a TBOX_3 domain similar to its counterpart in mammals. The regulated expression was observed in head kidney and spleen in response to live Vibrio anguillarum infection in vivo, and spleen leukocytes in vitro after PMA and poly I:C stimulation. Furthermore, we determined a 694 bp sequence, upstream of the transcriptional start site (TSS), to contain a number of sequence motifs that matched known transcription factor-binding sites. Activities of the presumptive regulatory gene were assessed by transfecting different 5'-deletion constructs in CHSE-214 cells. The results showed that the basal promoters and positive transcriptional regulator activities of GmEomes were dependent by sequences located from -694 to -376 bp upstream of TSS. Furthermore, we found that some Eomes binding sites were present in the 5'-flanking regions of the cod IFNγ gene predicted by bioinformatics. However, Co-transfection of eomesodermin overexpression plasmids with INFγ reporter vector into CHSE-214 cells determined that Atlantic cod eomesodermin played a minor role in activation of the INFγ promoter.

Transcriptional repression of the ectodomain sheddase ADAM10 by TBX2 and potential implication for Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: The ADAM10-mediated cleavage of transmembrane proteins regulates cellular processes such as proliferation or migration. Substrate cleavage by ADAM10 has also been implicated in pathological situations such as cancer or Morbus Alzheimer. Therefore, identifying endogenous molecules, which modulate the amount and consequently the activity of ADAM10, might contribute to a deeper understanding of the enzyme's role in both, physiology and pathology. METHOD: To elucidate the underlying cellular mechanism of the TBX2-mediated repression of ADAM10 gene expression, we performed overexpression, RNAi-mediated knockdown and pharmacological inhibition studies in the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Expression analysis was conducted by e.g. real-time RT-PCR or western blot techniques. To identify the binding region of TBX2 within the ADAM10 promoter, we used luciferase reporter assay on deletion constructs and EMSA/WEMSA experiments. In addition, we analyzed a TBX2 loss-of-function Drosophila model regarding the expression of ADAM10 orthologs by qPCR. Furthermore, we quantified the mRNA level of TBX2 in post-mortem brain tissue of AD patients. RESULTS: Here, we report TBX2 as a transcriptional repressor of ADAM10 gene expression: both, the DNA-binding domain and the repression domain of TBX2 were necessary to effect transcriptional repression of ADAM10 in neuronal SH-SY5Y cells. This regulatory mechanism required HDAC1 as a co-factor of TBX2. Transcriptional repression was mediated by two functional TBX2 binding sites within the core promoter sequence (- 315 to - 286 bp). Analysis of a TBX2 loss-of-function Drosophila model revealed that kuzbanian and kuzbanian-like, orthologs of ADAM10, were derepressed compared to wild type. Vice versa, analysis of cortical brain samples of AD-patients, which showed reduced ADAM10 mRNA levels, revealed a 2.5-fold elevation of TBX2, while TBX3 and TBX21 levels were not affected. CONCLUSION: Our results characterize TBX2 as a repressor of ADAM10 gene expression and suggest that this regulatory interaction is conserved across tissues and species.

Functional characterization of TBR1 variants in neurodevelopmental disorder.

Recurrent de novo variants in the TBR1 transcription factor are implicated in the etiology of sporadic autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Disruptions include missense variants located in the T-box DNA-binding domain and previous work has demonstrated that they disrupt TBR1 protein function. Recent screens of thousands of simplex families with sporadic ASD cases uncovered additional T-box variants in TBR1 but their etiological relevance is unclear. We performed detailed functional analyses of de novo missense TBR1 variants found in the T-box of ASD cases, assessing many aspects of protein function, including subcellular localization, transcriptional activity and protein-interactions. Only two of the three tested variants severely disrupted TBR1 protein function, despite in silico predictions that all would be deleterious. Furthermore, we characterized a putative interaction with BCL11A, a transcription factor that was recently implicated in a neurodevelopmental syndrome involving developmental delay and language deficits. Our findings enhance understanding of molecular functions of TBR1, as well as highlighting the importance of functional testing of variants that emerge from next-generation sequencing, to decipher their contributions to neurodevelopmental disorders like ASD.

Penaeid shrimp brachyury: sequence analysis and expression during gastrulation.

Gastrulation occurs by a variety of morphogenetic movements, often correlated with diverse expression of the T-box transcription factor Brachyury (Bra). Bra may be expressed in ectoderm, mesoderm, or endoderm, but its role in cell fate specification or regulation of gastrulation movements has not been studied in the development of crustaceans. Penaeid shrimp (Decapoda: Dendrobranchiata: Penaeidae) develop by complete cleavage and gastrulation by invagination to a free-swimming nauplius larva. Penaeid gastrulation diverges from other decapods and from insects, occurring early at a low cell number with the formation of a radial invagination. Toward a better understanding of gastrulation movements in penaeid shrimp, bra was identified from newly available penaeid shrimp genomes and transcriptomes of Litopenaeus vannamei, Marsupenaeus japonicus, and Penaeus monodon. Additional bra homologs were obtained from the outgroups Sicyonia ingentis (Decapoda: Dendrobranchiata: Sicyoniidae) and the caridean shrimp Caridina multidentata (Decapoda: Pleocymata). The genes encoded penaeid shrimp Bra proteins of 551-552 amino acids, containing the highly conserved T-box DNA-binding region. The N-terminal Smad1-binding domain, conserved in most animals, was absent in shrimp Bra. The R1 repressor domain was the best conserved of the C-terminal regulatory domains, which were widely divergent compared to other species. The penaeid shrimp bra gene consisted of six exons, with splice sites conserved with other phyla across the animal kingdom. Real-time qPCR and FPKM analysis showed that shrimp bra mRNA was strongly expressed during gastrulation. These findings begin to address the evolution of gastrulation in shrimp at the molecular level.

A novel TBX1 missense mutation in patients with syndromic congenital heart defects.

Congenital heart defects represent a characteristic part of several genetic syndromes associated with chromosomal abnormalities such as 22q11.2 deletion syndrome; many genes located in this locus, mainly TBX1, are candidate genes for congenital heart defects. In our cohort of 27 subjects with congenital heart defect, both karyotype analysis and Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) were performed. The TBX1 gene was sequenced in patients lacking chromosomal abnormalities. FISH analysis showed a de novo 22q11.2 deletion in two patients. The screening of TBX1 coding sequence identified a novel missense mutation c.569C > A (p.P190Q) in six unrelated patients and detected two associated known single nucleotide polymorphisms; the c.664C > T (rs2301558) in three patients and the c.420T > C (p.Phe140 Phe) (rs41298814) in one patient. Bioinformatic tools show that the novel missense mutation c.569C > A could modify the function and the stability of the TBX1 protein. The c.569C > A mutation was not found in 50 healthy controls. Ours results suggest a deleterious role of the c.569C > A mutation and strengthen the hypothesis that this mutation might be responsible for the same phenotype spectrum as the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

Acetylation of TBX5 by KAT2B and KAT2A regulates heart and limb development.

TBX5 plays a critical role in heart and forelimb development. Mutations in TBX5 cause Holt-Oram syndrome, an autosomal dominant condition that affects the formation of the heart and upper-limb. Several studies have provided significant insight into the role of TBX5 in cardiogenesis; however, how TBX5 activity is regulated by other factors is still unknown. Here we report that histone acetyltransferases KAT2A and KAT2B associate with TBX5 and acetylate it at Lys339. Acetylation potentiates its transcriptional activity and is required for nuclear retention. Morpholino-mediated knockdown of kat2a and kat2b transcripts in zebrafish severely perturb heart and limb development, mirroring the tbx5a knockdown phenotype. The phenotypes found in MO-injected embryos were also observed when we introduced mutations in the kat2a or kat2b genes using the CRISPR-Cas system. These studies highlight the importance of KAT2A and KAT2B modulation of TBX5 and their impact on heart and limb development.

Formation of a TBX20-CASZ1 protein complex is protective against dilated cardiomyopathy and critical for cardiac homeostasis.

By the age of 40, one in five adults without symptoms of cardiovascular disease are at risk for developing congestive heart failure. Within this population, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) remains one of the leading causes of disease and death, with nearly half of cases genetically determined. Though genetic and high throughput sequencing-based approaches have identified sporadic and inherited mutations in a multitude of genes implicated in cardiomyopathy, how combinations of asymptomatic mutations lead to cardiac failure remains a mystery. Since a number of studies have implicated mutations of the transcription factor TBX20 in congenital heart diseases, we investigated the underlying mechanisms, using an unbiased systems-based screen to identify novel, cardiac-specific binding partners. We demonstrated that TBX20 physically and genetically interacts with the essential transcription factor CASZ1. This interaction is required for survival, as mice heterozygous for both Tbx20 and Casz1 die post-natally as a result of DCM. A Tbx20 mutation associated with human familial DCM sterically interferes with the TBX20-CASZ1 interaction and provides a physical basis for how this human mutation disrupts normal cardiac function. Finally, we employed quantitative proteomic analyses to define the molecular pathways mis-regulated upon disruption of this novel complex. Collectively, our proteomic, biochemical, genetic, and structural studies suggest that the physical interaction between TBX20 and CASZ1 is required for cardiac homeostasis, and further, that reduction or loss of this critical interaction leads to DCM. This work provides strong evidence that DCM can be inherited through a digenic mechanism.

A HAND to TBX5 Explains the Link Between Thalidomide and Cardiac Diseases.

Congenital heart disease is the leading cause of death in the first year of life. Mutations only in few genes have been linked to some cases of CHD. Thalidomide was used by pregnant women for morning sickness but was removed from the market because it caused severe malformations including CHDs. We used both in silico docking software, and in vitro molecular and biochemical methods to document a novel interaction involving Thalidomide, TBX5, and HAND2. Thalidomide binds readily to TBX5 through amino acids R81, R82, and K226 all implicated in DNA binding. It reduces TBX5 binding to DNA by 40%, and suppresses TBX5 mediated activation of the NPPA and VEGF promoters by 70%. We documented a novel interaction between TBX5 and HAND2, and showed that a p.G202V HAND2 variant associated with CHD and coronary artery diseases found in a large Lebanese family with high consanguinity, drastically inhibited this interaction by 90%. Similarly, thalidomide inhibited the TBX5/HAND2 physical interaction, and the in silico docking revealed that the same amino acids involved in the interaction of TBX5 with DNA are also involved in its binding to HAND2. Our results establish a HAND2/TBX5 pathway implicated in heart development and diseases.

mTORC1 Promotes T-bet Phosphorylation To Regulate Th1 Differentiation.

CD4+ T cells lacking the mTORC1 activator Rheb fail to secrete IFN-γ under Th1 polarizing conditions. We hypothesized that this phenotype is due to defects in regulation of the canonical Th1 transcription factor T-bet at the level of protein phosphorylation downstream of mTORC1. To test this hypothesis, we employed targeted mass-spectrometry proteomic analysis-multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry. We used this method to detect and quantify predicted phosphopeptides derived from T-bet. By analyzing activated murine wild-type and Rheb-deficient CD4+ T cells, as well as murine CD4+ T cells activated in the presence of rapamycin, a pharmacologic inhibitor of mTORC1, we were able to identify six T-bet phosphorylation sites. Five of these are novel, and four sites are consistently dephosphorylated in both Rheb-deficient CD4+ T cells and T cells treated with rapamycin, suggesting mTORC1 signaling controls their phosphorylation. Alanine mutagenesis of each of the six phosphorylation sites was tested for the ability to impair IFN-γ expression. Single phosphorylation site mutants still support induction of IFN-γ expression; however, simultaneous mutation of three of the mTORC1-dependent sites results in significantly reduced IFN-γ expression. The reduced activity of the triple mutant T-bet is associated with its failure to recruit chromatin remodeling complexes to the Ifng gene promoter. These results establish a novel mechanism by which mTORC1 regulates Th1 differentiation, through control of T-bet phosphorylation.

Evolution and Classification of the T-Box Transcription Factor Family.

T-box proteins are key developmental transcription factors in Metazoa. Until recently they were thought to be animal specific and many T-box classes were considered bilaterian specific. Recent genome data from both early-branching animals and their closest unicellular relatives have radically changed this scenario. Thus, we now know that T-box genes originated in premetazoans, being present in the genomes of some extant early-branching fungi and unicellular holozoans. Here, we update the evolutionary classification of T-box families and review the evolution of T-box function in early-branching animals (sponges, ctenophores, placozoans, and cnidarians) and nonmodel bilaterians. We show that concomitant with the origin of Metazoa, the T-box family radiated into the major known T-box classes. On the other hand, while functional studies are still missing for many T-box classes, the emerging picture is that T-box genes have key roles in multiple aspects of development and in adult terminal cell-type differentiation in different animal lineages. A paradigmatic example is that of Brachyury, the founding member of the T-box family, for which several studies indicate a widely conserved role in regulating cell motility in different animal lineages and probably even before the advent of animal multicellularity. Overall, we here review the evolutionary history of T-box genes from holozoans to animals and discuss both their functional diversity and conservation.