The parasite Schistocephalus solidus secretes proteins with putative host manipulation functions.

BACKGROUND: Manipulative parasites are thought to liberate molecules in their external environment, acting as manipulation factors with biological functions implicated in their host's physiological and behavioural alterations. These manipulation factors are part of a complex mixture called the secretome. While the secretomes of various parasites have been described, there is very little data for a putative manipulative parasite. It is necessary to study the molecular interaction between a manipulative parasite and its host to better understand how such alterations evolve. METHODS: Here, we used proteomics to characterize the secretome of a model cestode with a complex life cycle based on trophic transmission. We studied Schistocephalus solidus during the life stage in which behavioural changes take place in its obligatory intermediate fish host, the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). We produced a novel genome sequence and assembly of S. solidus to improve protein coding gene prediction and annotation for this parasite. We then described the whole worm's proteome and its secretome during fish host infection using LC-MS/MS. RESULTS: A total of 2290 proteins were detected in the proteome of S. solidus, and 30 additional proteins were detected specifically in the secretome. We found that the secretome contains proteases, proteins with neural and immune functions, as well as proteins involved in cell communication. We detected receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatases, which were reported in other parasitic systems to be manipulation factors. We also detected 12 S. solidus-specific proteins in the secretome that may play important roles in host-parasite interactions. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that S. solidus liberates molecules with putative host manipulation functions in the host and that many of them are species-specific.

Development of Acanthocheilonema viteae in Meriones shawi: Absence of microfilariae and production of active ES-62.

AIMS: ES-62 is a well-studied anti-inflammatory molecule secreted by L4-adult stage Acanthocheilonema viteae. We maintain the life cycle of A viteae using Meriones libycus as the definitive host. Here, we investigated whether the full life cycle could be maintained, and functional ES-62 produced, in a related jird species-Meriones shawi. METHODS AND RESULTS: Adult worms were produced in comparable numbers in the two species, but very few microfilariae (MF) were observed in the M shawi bloodstream. M shawi ES-62 produced ex vivo was functional and protective in a mouse model of arthritis. Myeloid-derived cells from naïve and infected jirds of both species were compared with respect to ROS production and osteoclast generation, and some differences between the two species in both the absence and presence of infection were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The life cycle of A viteae cannot be successfully completed in M shawi jirds but L3 stage worms develop to adulthood and produce functional ES-62. Preliminary investigation into jird immune responses suggests that infection can differentially modulate myeloid responses in the two species. However, species-specific reagents are required to understand the complex interplay between A viteae and its host and to explain the lack of circulating MF in infected M shawi jirds.

Expression of Piwi Genes during the Regeneration of Lineus sanguineus (Nemertea, Pilidiophora, Heteronemertea).

The transposon silencer piwi genes play important roles in germline determination and maintenance, gametogenesis, and stem-cell self-renewal, and the expression of certain piwi genes is indispensable for regeneration. Knowledge about piwi genes is needed for phylum Nemertea, which contains members (e.g., Lineus sanguineus) with formidable regeneration capacity. By searching the L. sanguineus genome, we identified six Argonaute genes including three ago (Ls-Ago2, Ls-Ago2a, and Ls-Ago2b) and three piwi (Ls-piwi1, Ls-piwi2, and Ls-piwi3) genes. In situ hybridization revealed that, in intact females, Ls-piwi2 and Ls-piwi3 were not expressed, while Ls-piwi1 was expressed in ovaries. During regeneration, Ls-piwi1 and Ls-pcna (proliferating cell nuclear antigen) had strong and similar expressions. The expression of Ls-piwi1 became indetectable while Ls-pcna continued to be expressed when the differentiation of new organs was finished. During anterior regeneration, expression signals of Ls-piwi2 and Ls-piwi3 were weak and only detected in the blastema stage. During posterior regeneration, no expression was observed for Ls-piwi2. To date, no direct evidence has been found for the existence of congenital stem cells in adult L. sanguineus. The "pluripotent cells" in regenerating tissues are likely to be dedifferentiated from other type(s) of cells.

Characterization of a rhodanese homologue from Haemonchus contortus and its immune-modulatory effects on goat immune cells in vitro.

BACKGROUND: Modulation of the host immune response by nematode parasites has been widely reported. Rhodaneses (thiosulfate: cyanide sulfurtransferases) are present in a wide range of organisms, such as archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants and animals. Previously, it was reported that a rhodanese homologue could be bound by goat peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in vivo. METHODS: In the present study, we cloned and produced a recombinant rhodanese protein originating from Haemonchus contortus (rHCRD), a parasitic nematode of small ruminants. rHCRD was co-incubated with goat PBMCs to assess its immunomodulatory effects on proliferation, apoptosis and cytokine secretion. RESULTS: We verified that the natural HCRD protein localized predominantly to the bowel wall and body surface of the parasite. We further demonstrated that serum produced by goats artificially infected with H. contortus successfully recognized rHCRD, which bound to goat PBMCs. rHCRD suppressed proliferation of goat PBMCs stimulated by concanavalin A but did not induce apoptosis in goat PBMCs. The production of TNF-α and IFN-γ decreased significantly, whereas secretion of IL-10 and TGF-ß1 increased, in goat PBMCs after exposure to rHCRD. rHCRD also inhibited phagocytosis by goat monocytes. Moreover, rHCRD downregulated the expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-II on goat monocytes in a dose-dependent manner, but did not alter MHC-I expression. CONCLUSIONS: These results propose a possible immunomodulatory target that may help illuminate the interactions between parasites and their hosts at the molecular level and reveal innovative protein species as candidate drug and vaccine targets.

A serine/threonine-specific protein kinase of Haemonchus contortus with a role in the development.

In the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the serine/threonine-specific protein kinase, AKT, is known to play a key role in dauer formation, life-span, and stress-resistance through the insulin-like signaling pathway. Although the structure and function of AKT-coding genes of C. elegans are understood, this is not the case for homologous genes in parasitic nematodes. In the present study, we explored a C. elegans akt-1 gene homolog in the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus, investigated its transcript isoforms (Hc-akt-1a and Hc-akt-1b), and studied expression and function using both homologous and heterologous functional genomic tools. In C. elegans, we showed that the predicted promoter of Hc-akt-1 drives substantial expression in ASJ neurons of the N2 (wild-type) strain. In H. contortus (Haecon-5 stain), RNAi (soaking) led to a significantly decreased transcript abundance for both Hc-akt-1a and Hc-akt-1b, and reduced larval development in larval stages in vitro. Chemical inhibition was also shown to block larval development. Taken together, the evidence from this study points to a key functional role for Hc-akt-1 in H. contortus.

Reference gene analysis and its use for kinase expression profiling in Fasciola hepatica.

The liver fluke Fasciola hepatica causes fasciolosis, a foodborne zoonosis affecting humans and livestock worldwide. A reliable quantification of gene expression in all parasite life stages relevant for targeting by anthelmintics in the mammalian host is fundamental. The aim of this study was to define a set of stably expressed reference genes for qRT-PCR in Fasciola studies. We determined the expression stabilities of eight candidate reference genes by the algorithms NormFinder, geNorm, BestKeeper, and comparative ΔCT method. The most stably expressed reference genes for the comparison of intra-mammalian life stages were glutamyl-prolyl-tRNA synthetase (Fheprs) and tubulin-specific chaperone D (Fhtbcd). The two best reference genes for analysis of in vitro-cultured juveniles were Fhtbcd and proteasome subunit beta type-7 (Fhpsmb7). These genes should replace the housekeeping gene gapdh which is used in most Fasciola studies to date, but in fact was differentially expressed in our analysis. Based on the new reference genes, we quantified expression of five kinases (Abl1, Abl2, PKC, Akt1, Plk1) discussed as targets in other parasitic flatworms. Distinct expression patterns throughout development were revealed and point to interesting biological functions. We like to motivate using this set of validated reference genes for future F. hepatica research, such as studies on drug targets or parasite development.

Development of reverse genetics system for small ruminant morbillivirus: Rescuing recombinant virus to express Echinococcus granulosus EG95 antigen.

Peste des petits ruminants and cystic hydatidosis may be simultaneously endemic in a given area. Their pathogens are small ruminant morbillivirus (SRMV) and Echinococcus granulosus (E. granulosus), respectively. The SRMV, formerly called peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV), is classified into the genus Morbillivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. This virus is an ideal vaccine vector to deliver immunogenic proteins. In this study, a reverse genetics system was developed to rescue a recombinant SRMV (Nigeria 75/1 strain) expressing E. granulosus EG95 antigen in vitro. The recombinant SRMV, albeit replicating more slowly than its parental virus, could effectively express the EG95 antigen in cells by analyses of Western blot, indirect immunofluorescence and mass spectrometry. An EG95 subunit vaccine has been widely used for prevention of cystic hydatidosis in some areas of China. The EG95-expressing SRMV, if proven to induce effective immune responses against both diseases in a future animal experiment, would become a potential candidate of bivalent vaccine.

Proteomic analysis of the response of Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae to exogenous nitric oxide.

Trichinella spiralis mainly dwells in the muscle tissue of its host and is the main causative agent of trichinellosis in humans. Nitric oxide (NO), an important intracellular signaling molecule that may restrict pathogen growth in infected hosts, has been known for its anti-pathogenic activity, including resistance to T. spiralis. Herein, we applied label-free analysis to investigate the effect of sodium nitroprusside (SNP, a NO donor compound) on the proteome of T. spiralis muscle larvae (ML), followed by Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway cluster analyses. Of the 1,476 proteins detected in the ML, 121 proteins showed differential expression, including 50 significantly upregulated and 71 downregulated proteins. The functions of the 108 annotated proteins were primarily related to signal transduction, transcription/translation, material metabolism, protein synthesis/assembly/degradation, and stress/defense/antioxidation. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assay verified that FRMD5 and CUT-1 gene expression levels were significantly increased, while COX2 gene expression level was significantly decreased. GO annotation and KEGG pathway analyses showed that the majority of differentially expressed proteins were mainly involved in the molecular function of the catalytic activity, biological process of the immune system process, metabolic process, cellular component organization, biological adhesion, and cellular component of the macromolecular complex. Our results demonstrate the first comprehensive protein expression profile of the ML in response to NO stress and provide novel references for understanding the potential mechanism underlying the effects of NO on trichinellosis.

A Meloidogyne incognita effector MiISE5 suppresses programmed cell death to promote parasitism in host plant.

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) are highly specialized parasites that interact with their host plants using a range of strategies. The esophageal glands are the main places where nematodes synthesize effector proteins, which play central roles in successful invasion. The Meloidogyne incognita effector MiISE5 is exclusively expressed within the subventral esophageal cells and is upregulated during early parasitic stages. In this study, we show that MiISE5 can be secreted to barley cells through infectious hyphae of Magnaporthe oryzae. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing MiISE5 became significantly more susceptible to M. incognita. Inversely, the tobacco rattle virus (TRV)-mediated silence of MiISE5 decreased nematode parasitism. Moreover, transient expression of MiISE5 suppressed cell death caused by Burkholderia glumae in Nicotiana benthamiana. Based on transcriptome analysis of MiISE5 transgenic sample and the wild-type (WT) sample, we obtained 261 DEGs, and the results of GO and KEGG enrichment analysis indicate that MiISE5 can interfere with various metabolic and signaling pathways, especially the JA signaling pathway, to facilitate nematode parasitism. Results from the present study suggest that MiISE5 plays an important role during the early stages of parasitism and provides evidence to decipher the molecular mechanisms underlying the manipulation of host immune defense responses by M. incognita.

Heterologous expression of three antigenic proteins from Angiostrongylus cantonensis: ES-7, Lec-5, and 14-3-3 in mammalian cells.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic nematode and the main causative agent of human cerebral eosinophilic meningoencephalitis (EoM). A definitive diagnosis of EoM usually requires serologic or molecular analysis of the patient's clinical sample. Currently, a 31 kDa antigen is used in immunological tests for this purpose, however as a crude antigen preparation it may present cross-reactivity with other helminthic infections, especially echinococcosis. Heterologous expression studies using prokaryotic systems failed on producing antigenic proteins. The aim of this study was to express and purify three recombinant glycoproteins representing A. cantonensis antigens: ES-7, Lec-5, and 14-3-3, in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and ES-7 in human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells to develop a source of specific antigens to be used in the diagnosis of angiostrongyliasis. The potential diagnostic value of these three proteins was subsequently characterized in one- and two-dimensional electrophoresis and Western blot to dot blot analyses, with Angiostrongylus-positive sera, normal human sera (NHS), and a pool of Echinococcus-positive sera (included as a specificity control) used for detection. In addition, recognition of these three proteins following treatment with N-glycosidase F was examined. The ES-7 proteins that were expressed in HEK and CHO cells, and the Lec-5 protein that was expressed in CHO cells, were specifically recognized by A. cantonensis-positive sera in the 2D electrophoresis analysis. This recognition was shown to be dependent on the presence of glycidic portions, making mammalian cells a very promising source of heterologous expression antigenic proteins from Angiostrongylus.

Girardia dorotocephala transcriptome sequence, assembly, and validation through characterization of piwi homologs and stem cell progeny markers.

Planarian flatworms are popular models for the study of regeneration and stem cell biology in vivo. Technical advances and increased availability of genetic information have fueled the discovery of molecules responsible for stem cell pluripotency and regeneration in flatworms. Unfortunately, most of the planarian research performed worldwide utilizes species that are not natural habitants of North America, which limits their availability to newcomer laboratories and impedes their distribution for educational activities. In order to circumvent these limitations and increase the genetic information available for comparative studies, we sequenced the transcriptome of Girardia dorotocephala, a planarian species pandemic and commercially available in North America. A total of 254,802,670 paired sequence reads were obtained from RNA extracted from intact individuals, regenerating fragments, as well as freshly excised auricles of a clonal line of G. dorotocephala (MA-C2), and used for de novo assembly of its transcriptome. The resulting transcriptome draft was validated through functional analysis of genetic markers of stem cells and their progeny in G. dorotocephala. Akin to orthologs in other planarian species, G. dorotocephala Piwi1 (GdPiwi1) was found to be a robust marker of the planarian stem cell population and GdPiwi2 an essential component for stem cell-driven regeneration. Identification of G. dorotocephala homologs of the early stem cell descendent marker PROG-1 revealed a family of lysine-rich proteins expressed during epithelial cell differentiation. Sequences from the MA-C2 transcriptome were found to be 98-99% identical to nucleotide sequences from G. dorotocephala populations with different chromosomal number, demonstrating strong conservation regardless of karyotype evolution. Altogether, this work establishes G. dorotocephala as a viable and accessible option for analysis of gene function in North America.

Organ specific gene expression in the regenerating tail of Macrostomum lignano.

Temporal and spatial characterization of gene expression is a prerequisite for the understanding of cell-, tissue-, and organ-differentiation. In a multifaceted approach to investigate gene expression in the tail plate of the free-living marine flatworm Macrostomum lignano, we performed a posterior-region-specific in situ hybridization screen, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of regenerating animals, and functional analyses of selected tail-specific genes. The in situ screen revealed transcripts expressed in the antrum, cement glands, adhesive organs, prostate glands, rhabdite glands, and other tissues. Next we used RNA-seq to characterize temporal expression in the regenerating tail plate revealing a time restricted onset of both adhesive organs and copulatory apparatus regeneration. In addition, we identified three novel previously unannotated genes solely expressed in the regenerating stylet. RNA interference showed that these genes are required for the formation of not only the stylet but the whole male copulatory apparatus. RNAi treated animals lacked the stylet, vesicula granulorum, seminal vesicle, false seminal vesicle, and prostate glands, while the other tissues of the tail plate, such as adhesive organs regenerated normally. In summary, our findings provide a large resource of expression data during homeostasis and regeneration of the morphologically complex tail regeneration and pave the way for a better understanding of organogenesis in M. lignano.

Production of monoclonal antibodies and development of a quantitative immuno-polymerase chain reaction assay to detect and quantify recombinant Glutathione S-transferase.

GST-tagged proteins are important tools for the production of recombinant proteins. Removal of GST tag from its fusion protein, frequently by harsh chemical treatments or proteolytic methods, is often required. Thus, the monitoring of the proteins in tag-free form requires a significant effort to determine the remnants of GST during purification process. In the present study, we developed both a conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and an immuno-polymerase chain reaction (IPCR) assay, both specific for detection of recombinant GST (rGST). rGST was expressed in Escherichia coli JM109, using a pGEX4T-3 vector, and several anti-rGST monoclonal antibodies were generated using hybridoma technology. Two of these were rationally selected as capture and detection antibodies, allowing the development of a sandwich ELISA with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.01 µg/ml. To develop the rGST-IPCR assay, we selected "Universal-IPCR" format, comprising the biotin-avidin binding as the coupling system. In addition, the rGST-IPCR was developed in standard PCR tubes, and the surface adsorption of antibodies on PCR tubes, the optimal neutravidin concentrations, the generation of a reporter DNA and the concentration effect were studied and determined. Under optimized assay conditions, the rGST-IPCR assay provided a 100-fold increase in the LOD as well as an expanded working range, in comparison with rGST-ELISA. The proposed method exhibited great potentiality for application in several fields in which measurement of very low levels of GST is necessary, and might provide a model for other IPCR assays.

Self-adjuvanting C18 lipid vinil sulfone-PP2A vaccine: study of the induced immunomodulation against Trichuris muris infection.

Despite the importance of the adjuvant in the immunization process, very few adjuvants merge with the antigens in vaccines. A synthetic self-adjuvant oleic-vinyl sulfone (OVS) linked to the catalytic region of recombinant serine/threonine phosphatase 2A from the nematode Angiostrongylus costaricensis (rPP2A) was used for intranasal immunization in mice previously infected with Trichuris muris The animal intranasal immunization with rPP2A-OVS showed a reduction of 99.01% in the number of the nematode eggs and 97.90% in adult. The immunohistochemical analysis of the intestinal sections showed that in immunized animals with lipopeptide the mucus was significantly higher than in the other experimental groups. Also, these animals presented significantly different chemokine, CCL20 and CCL11, levels. However, although the number and size of Tuft cells did not vary between groups, the intensity of fluorescence per cell was significant in the group immunized with the rPP2A-OVS. The results of the present study suggest that mice immunized with the lipopeptide are capable of activating a combined Th17/Th9 response. This strategy of immunization may be of great applicability not only in immunotherapy and immunoprophylaxis to control diseases caused by nematodes but also in pathologies necessitating action at the level of the Th9 response in the intestinal mucosa.

Process development for production and purification of the Schistosoma mansoni Sm14 antigen.

The trematode Schistosoma mansoni Sm14 antigen was expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris and secreted into the culture medium at yields of approximately 250 mg L-1. Sm14 belongs to a family of fatty-acid binding proteins and appears to play an important role in uptake, transport, and compartmentalization of lipids in S. mansoni and it is a potential vaccine candidate in both humans and domesticated animals. The Sm14 gene was codon-optimized for expression in P. pastoris, and placed under transcription of the strong methanol inducible AOX1 promoter. Mut+ transformants were selected and used in fed-batch cultivation using a 2.5L fermenter equipped with an on-line methanol control system in order to maintain constant methanol levels during induction. Optimal conditions for the expression of Sm14 by P. pastoris were found to be: dissolved oxygen at 40%, temperature of 25 °C, pH 5.0, and a constant methanol concentration of 1 gL-1. Our results show that a correctly processed Sm14 was secreted into the culture medium at levels of approximately 250  mg L-1. Sm14 from clarified culture medium was purified using a two-step procedure: anion-exchange chromatography followed by hydrophobic interaction chromatography, resulting in >95% purity with a final yield of 40% from the starting cell culture medium. This product has been tested in preliminary clinical trials and shown to elicit an antibody response with no adverse reactions.

Comparative analyses of glycerotoxin expression unveil a novel structural organization of the bloodworm venom system.

BACKGROUND: We present the first molecular characterization of glycerotoxin (GLTx), a potent neurotoxin found in the venom of the bloodworm Glycera tridactyla (Glyceridae, Annelida). Within the animal kingdom, GLTx shows a unique mode of action as it can specifically up-regulate the activity of Cav2.2 channels (N-type) in a reversible manner. The lack of sequence information has so far hampered a detailed understanding of its mode of action. RESULTS: Our analyses reveal three ~3.8 kb GLTx full-length transcripts, show that GLTx represents a multigene family, and suggest it functions as a dimer. An integrative approach using transcriptomics, quantitative real-time PCR, in situ hybridization, and immunocytochemistry shows that GLTx is highly expressed exclusively in four pharyngeal lobes, a previously unrecognized part of the venom apparatus. CONCLUSIONS: Our results overturn a century old textbook view on the glycerid venom system, suggesting that it is anatomically and functionally much more complex than previously thought. The herein presented GLTx sequence information constitutes an important step towards the establishment of GLTx as a versatile tool to understand the mechanism of synaptic function, as well as the mode of action of this novel neurotoxin.

Molecular cloning, purification and characterization of Brugia malayi phosphoglycerate kinase.

Phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) is a glycolytic enzyme present in many parasites. It has been reported as a candidate molecule for drug and vaccine developments. In the present study, a full-length cDNA encoding the Brugia malayi 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (BmPGK) with an open reading frame of 1.3 kb was isolated and PCR amplified and cloned. The exact size of the BmPGK's ORF is 1377 bps. The BmPGK gene was subcloned into pET-28a (+) expression vector, the expressed enzyme was purified by affinity column and characterized. The SDS-PAGE analysis revealed native molecular weight of recombinant Brugia malayi 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (rBmPGK) to be ∼45 kDa. The enzyme was found sensitive to temperature and pH, it showed maximum activity at 25 °C and pH 8.5. The Km values for PGA and ATP were 1.77 and 0.967 mM, respectively. The PGK inhibitor, clorsulon and antifilarial drugs albendazole and ivermectin inhibited the enzyme. The specific inhibitor of PGK, clorsulon, competitively inhibited enzyme with Ki value 1.88 µM. Albendazole also inhibited PGK competitively with Ki value 35.39 µM. Further these inhibitory studies were confirmed by docking and molecular simulation of drugs with enzyme. Clorsulon interacted with substrate binding site with glutamine 37 as well as in hinge regions with aspartic acid 385 and valine 387 at ADP binding site. On the other hand albendazole interacted with asparagine 335 residues. These effects were in good association with binding interactions. Thus current study might help in designing and synthesis of effective inhibitors for this novel drug target and understanding their mode of interaction with the potent anthelmintic drugs.

Transcriptome Analysis of the Chrysanthemum Foliar Nematode, Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi (Aphelenchida: Aphelenchoididae).

The chrysanthemum foliar nematode (CFN), Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi, is a plant parasitic nematode that attacks many plants. In this study, a transcriptomes of mixed-stage population of CFN was sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq 2000 platform. 68.10 million Illumina high quality paired end reads were obtained which generated 26,817 transcripts with a mean length of 1,032 bp and an N50 of 1,672 bp, of which 16,467 transcripts were annotated against six databases. In total, 20,311 coding region sequences (CDS), 495 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and 8,353 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were predicted, respectively. The CFN with the most shared sequences was B. xylophilus with 16,846 (62.82%) common transcripts and 10,543 (39.31%) CFN transcripts matched sequences of all of four plant parasitic nematodes compared. A total of 111 CFN transcripts were predicted as homologues of 7 types of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) with plant/fungal cell wall-degrading activities, fewer transcripts were predicted as homologues of plant cell wall-degrading enzymes than fungal cell wall-degrading enzymes. The phylogenetic analysis of GH5, GH16, GH43 and GH45 proteins between CFN and other organisms showed CFN and other nematodes have a closer phylogenetic relationship. In the CFN transcriptome, sixteen types of genes orthologues with seven classes of protein families involved in the RNAi pathway in C. elegans were predicted. This research provides comprehensive gene expression information at the transcriptional level, which will facilitate the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of CFN and the distribution of gene functions at the macro level, potentially revealing improved methods for controlling CFN.

Schistosome sex matters: a deep view into gonad-specific and pairing-dependent transcriptomes reveals a complex gender interplay.

As a key event for maintaining life cycles, reproduction is a central part of platyhelminth biology. In case of parasitic platyhelminths, reproductive processes can also contribute to pathology. One representative example is the trematode Schistosoma, which causes schistosomiasis, an infectious disease, whose pathology is associated with egg production. Among the outstanding features of schistosomes is their dioecious lifestyle and the pairing-dependent differentiation of the female gonads which finally leads to egg synthesis. To analyze the reproductive biology of Schistosoma mansoni in-depth we isolated complete ovaries and testes from paired and unpaired schistosomes for comparative RNA-seq analyses. Of >7,000 transcripts found in the gonads, 243 (testes) and 3,600 (ovaries) occurred pairing-dependently. Besides the detection of genes transcribed preferentially or specifically in the gonads of both genders, we uncovered pairing-induced processes within the gonads including stem cell-associated and neural functions. Comparisons to work on neuropeptidergic signaling in planarian showed interesting parallels but also remarkable differences and highlights the importance of the nervous system for flatworm gonad differentiation. Finally, we postulated first functional hints for 235 hypothetical genes. Together, these results elucidate key aspects of flatworm reproductive biology and will be relevant for basic as well as applied, exploitable research aspects.

Expression, purification and enzymatic characterization of Brugia malayi dihydrofolate reductase.

Brugia malayi (B. malayi) is one of the three causative agents of lymphatic filariasis, a neglected parasitic disease. Current literature suggests that dihydrofolate reductase is a potential drug target for the elimination of B. malayi. Here we report the recombinant expression and purification of a ∼20 kDa B. malayi dihydrofolate reductase (BmDHFR). A His6-tagged construct was expressed in E. coli and purified by affinity chromatography to yield active and homogeneous enzyme for steady-state kinetic characterization and inhibition studies. The catalytic activity kcat was found to be 1.4 ± 0.1 s(-1), the Michaelis Menten constant KM for dihydrofolate 14.7 ± 3.6 µM, and the equilibrium dissociation constant KD for NADPH 25 ± 24 nM. For BmDHFR, IC50 values for a six DHFR inhibitors were determined to be 3.1 ± 0.2 nM for methotrexate, 32 ± 22 µM for trimethoprim, 109 ± 34 µM for pyrimethamine, 154 ± 46 µM for 2,4-diaminoquinazoline, 771 ± 44 µM for cycloguanil, and >20,000 µM for 2,4-diaminopyrimidine. Our findings suggest that antifolate compounds can serve as inhibitors of BmDHFR.