Ras2 is important for growth and pathogenicity in Fusarium circinatum.

In this study, we investigated to possible role of Ras2 in Fusarium circinatum- a fungus that causes pine pitch canker disease on many different pine species and has a wide geographic distribution. This protein is encoded by the RAS2 gene and has been shown to control growth and pathogenicity in a number of fungi in a mitogen-activated protein kinase- and/or cyclic adenosyl monophosphate pathway-dependent manner. The aim was therefore to characterize the phenotypes of RAS2 gene knockout and complementation mutants of F. circinatum. These mutants were generated by transforming protoplasts of the fungus with suitable split-marker constructs. The mutant strains, together with the wild type strain, were used in growth studies as well as pathogenicity assays on Pinus patula seedlings. Results showed that the knockout mutant strain produced significantly smaller lesions compared to the complementation mutant and wild type strains. Growth studies also showed significantly smaller colonies and delayed conidial germination in the knockout mutant strain compared to the complement mutant and wild type strains. Interestingly, the knockout mutant strain produced more macroconidia than the wild type strain. Collectively, these results showed that Ras2 plays an important role in both growth and pathogenicity of F. circinatum. Future studies will seek to determine the pathway(s) through which Ras2 controls these traits in F. circinatum.

Investigação da quinase IKKß como um alvo terapêutico anti-metastático em câncer de pulmão associado à ativação do oncogene KRAS / Exploring IKKß as an anti-metastatic therapeutic target in KRAS-induced lung câncer

O câncer de pulmão é o tipo de câncer que apresenta o maior índice de mortalidade em todo o mundo. As alterações genéticas mais frequentes em câncer de pulmão são as mutações pontuais no oncogene que codifica a GTPase KRAS. Apesar destas mutações estarem diretamente ligadas à oncogênese, terapias que visam inibir diretamente a proteína Ras falharam em ensaios clínicos. Uma das propriedades mais importantes na oncogênese é a aquisição de capacidade metastática tumoral. Desta forma, o objetivo deste projeto é identificar alvos terapêuticos que inibam as metástases tumorais induzidas pelo oncogene KRAS no pulmão. Com base em relatos recentes mostrando que a forma oncogênica de KRAS promove, não só a iniciação tumoral, mas também promove a aquisição de um fenótipo metastático, a hipótese deste projeto é que (1) a capacidade mestastática tumoral induzida por KRAS no pulmão é potencializada pela quinase IKKß; e (2) que a inibição desta quinase reduzirá a capacidade invasiva celular e metastática tumoral. Esta hipótese foi formulada com base em estudos anteriores, os quais demonstraram que o principal substrato da IKKß, o fator de transcrição NF-κB, é ativado por KRAS em tumores pulmonares in situ de forma dependente da IKKß, que o NF-κB é capaz de promover metástase em diferentes modelos tumorais, e que a inibição da atividade da IKKß com um inibidor farmacológico em um modelo animal de câncer de pulmão induzido por KRAS, diminui o crescimento tumoral e a progressão tumoral para graus histológicos mais avançados. Nosso objetivo era avaliar se a inibição de IKKß é capaz de afetar a migração e invasão de células portadoras de mutação em KRAS in vitro e se a inibição de IKKß é capaz de afetar a capacidade metatática dessas células in vivo. Primeiramente, avaliamos a expressão de enzimas relacionadas ao fenótipo metastático, as metaloproteinases de matriz 2 e 9 (MMP-2 e MMP-9) e, também uma molécula intimamente relacionada ao processo de adesão mediado por integrinas, FAK (quinase de adesão focal), frente a inibição de IKKß através de um inibidor farmacológico altamente especifico (Composto A) e frente a inibição genética de IKKß por interferência de RNA (siRNA) em células A549 e H358. Avaliamos também a atividade das MMPs frente inibição genética de KRAS (siKRAS) e IKKß (siIKKß) e vimos que IKKß parece modular a expressão ou atividade de MMP-9 e reduz a expressão de FAK. Já a expressão de MMP-2 não apresentou alteração. Posteriormente avaliamos migração na célula A549 e invasão nas células A549 e H358 com inibição de IKKß, por ensaios Transwell, e observamos uma redução da migração e invasão celular in vitro. Em seguida, fomos gerar linhagens celulares paraa expressar luciferase, as linhagens A549 pLUC e H358 pLUC. Os clones A549 pLUC B4 e H358 pLUC F1 com inibição de KRAS e IKKß por interferência de RNA, foram injetados pela veia da cauda nesses camundongos e as metástases foram monitoradas por imageamento in vivo. Houve metástases em 20% dos animais com siIKKß na região anatômica da boca. Os animais que receberam siControle e siKRAS não apresentaram nenhuma metástase visível no equipamento, mas foi observado micrometástases nas análises histológicas dos pulmões. O resultado do experimento de metástase in vivo é inesperado, não só pelo fato de ocorrer no grupo experimental siIKKß, mas também pelo local anatômico do tumor, sendo necessária uma maior investigação do papel de IKKß nesse processo, podendo ser um resultado aleatório. Quando avaliamos em conjunto, nossos resultados sugerem que a quinase IKKß desempenha um papel importante no fenótipo migratório e invasivo de células pulmonares portadoras de KRAS oncogênica, contribuindo para a capacidade metastática

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. The most frequent genetic changes found in lung cancer are driver mutations in the KRAS proto-oncogene. Even though KRAS mutations have been causally linked to the oncogenic process, therapies targeted to oncogenic RAS have failed in clinical trials. One of the main characteristics in oncogenesis is the ability of tumors to acquire metastatic capability. The objective of this project is to identify therapeutic targets that reduce KRASinduced lung cancer metastasis. Based on previous reports that oncogenic KRAS, drives not only tumor initiation, but also promotes a metastatic phenotype, the hypothesis of this project is that (1) the acquisition of metastatic ability induced by KRAS in the lung is potentiated by the IKK kinase; and (2) that IKKß inhibition will reduce KRAS-induced cell invasive properties and KRAS-induced tumor metastasis. This hypothesis has been formulated on the basis of previous studies showing that the main IKKß substrate, the transcription factor NF-κB, is activated by KRAS in lung tumors in situ in an IKKß-dependent manner, that NF-κB is known to promote metastasis in different tumor models, and that pharmacological IKKß inhibition in a KRAS-induced lung cancer mouse model reduces tumor growth and progression to higher histological tumor grades. Our goal was evaluate how inhibition of IKKß affects migration and invasion of KRAS-positive lung cells in vitro and whether inhibition of IKKß is capable of affecting the metatactic capacity of these cells in vivo. First, we evaluated the expression of enzymes involved in the metastatic phenotype, matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and also a molecule involved in the integrinmediated adhesion, FAK (focal adhesion kinase), we targeted IKKß by a highly specific IKK inhibitor (Compound A) or with RNA interference in A549 and H358 cells. We also used colorimetric Matrix Biotrak Activity Assay System to measure the activity of MMPs with RNA interference for KRAS (siKRAS) and IKKß (IKKß) and we have seen that IKKß appears to modulate the expression or activity of MMP-9 and decreases the expression of FAK. The expression of MMP-2 did not change. Then we evaluated migration in A549 cell and invasion in A549 and H358 cells with inhibition of IKK by RNA interference or with Compound A treatment in Transwell assays, and observed a significantly reduced cell migration and invasion in vitro. We then generated cell lines to express luciferase, the A549 pLUC and H358 pLUC lines. A549 pLUC B4 and H358 pLUC F1 cells with RNA interference for KRAS and IKKß were injected in the tail vein in nude (balb/c) mice and metastases were monitored by in vivo imaging. There were metastases in 20% of IKKß animals in the anatomical region of the mouth. Animals that received siControl and siKRAS had no visible metastasis in the live imaging, but micrometastases were observed in the histological analyzes of the lungs. The result of this experiment is unexpected, not only due to the fact that it occurs in the IKKß experimental group, but also due to the anatomical site of the tumor, and a further investigation of the role of IKKß in this process, can be a random result. When evaluated together, our results suggest that the IKKß kinase plays an important role in the migratory and invasive phenotype of in KRAS positive lung cancer cells, contributing to metastatic capacity

Nonreentrant atrial tachycardia occurs independently of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in RASopathy patients.

Multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT) has a well-known association with Costello syndrome, but is rarely described with related RAS/MAPK pathway disorders (RASopathies). We report 11 patients with RASopathies (Costello, Noonan, and Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines [formerly LEOPARD syndrome]) and nonreentrant atrial tachycardias (MAT and ectopic atrial tachycardia) demonstrating overlap in cardiac arrhythmia phenotype. Similar overlap is seen in RASopathies with respect to skeletal, musculoskeletal and cutaneous abnormalities, dysmorphic facial features, and neurodevelopmental deficits. Nonreentrant atrial tachycardias may cause cardiac compromise if sinus rhythm is not restored expeditiously. Typical first-line supraventricular tachycardia anti-arrhythmics (propranolol and digoxin) were generally not effective in restoring or maintaining sinus rhythm in this cohort, while flecainide or amiodarone alone or in concert with propranolol were effective anti-arrhythmic agents for acute and chronic use. Atrial tachycardia resolved in all patients. However, a 4-month-old boy from the cohort was found asystolic (with concurrent cellulitis) and a second patient underwent cardiac transplant for heart failure complicated by recalcitrant atrial arrhythmia. While propranolol alone frequently failed to convert or maintain sinus rhythm, fleccainide or amiodarone, occasionally in combination with propranolol, was effective for RASopathy patient treatment for nonreentrant atrial arrhythmia. Our analysis shows that RASopathy patients may have nonreentrant atrial tachycardia with and without associated cardiac hypertrophy. While nonreentrant arrhythmia has been traditionally associated with Costello syndrome, this work provides an expanded view of RASopathy cardiac arrhythmia phenotype as we demonstrate mutant proteins throughout this signaling pathway can also give rise to ectopic and/or MAT.

Exploring the interactions of the RAS family in the human protein network and their potential implications in RAS-directed therapies.

RAS proteins are the founding members of the RAS superfamily of GTPases. They are involved in key signaling pathways regulating essential cellular functions such as cell growth and differentiation. As a result, their deregulation by inactivating mutations often results in aberrant cell proliferation and cancer. With the exception of the relatively well-known KRAS, HRAS and NRAS proteins, little is known about how the interactions of the other RAS human paralogs affect cancer evolution and response to treatment. In this study we performed a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between the phylogeny of RAS proteins and their location in the protein interaction network. This analysis was integrated with the structural analysis of conserved positions in available 3D structures of RAS complexes. Our results show that many RAS proteins with divergent sequences are found close together in the human interactome. We found specific conserved amino acid positions in this group that map to the binding sites of RAS with many of their signaling effectors, suggesting that these pairs could share interacting partners. These results underscore the potential relevance of cross-talking in the RAS signaling network, which should be taken into account when considering the inhibitory activity of drugs targeting specific RAS oncoproteins. This study broadens our understanding of the human RAS signaling network and stresses the importance of considering its potential cross-talk in future therapies.

Structures of Ras superfamily effector complexes: What have we learnt in two decades?

The Ras superfamily small G proteins are master regulators of a diverse range of cellular processes and act via downstream effector molecules. The first structure of a small G protein-effector complex, that of Rap1A with c-Raf1, was published 20 years ago. Since then, the structures of more than 60 small G proteins in complex with their effectors have been published. These effectors utilize a diverse array of structural motifs to interact with the G protein fold, which we have divided into four structural classes: intermolecular ß-sheets, helical pairs, other interactions, and pleckstrin homology (PH) domains. These classes and their representative structures are discussed and a contact analysis of the interactions is presented, which highlights the common effector-binding regions between and within the small G protein families.

Companion-diagnostic testing limited to KRAS codons 12 and 13 misses 17% of potentially relevant RAS mutations in colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: KRAS codons 12 and 13 mutations are commonly used to identify colorectal carcinoma (CRC) patients who are unlikely to benefit from anti-EGFR therapy. However, humans have four different homologous RAS proteins and no routine screening is performed for the other mutation sites. Non-screened mutations may still be present in a significant subset of patients without KRAS codon 12 and 13 mutations. METHODS: We developed a LightCycler screening assay that encompasses codons 12, 13 and 61 of all RAS genes. Screen-positive specimens were characterized by Sanger sequencing. 130 CRC specimens were screened for all RAS genes. The results for KRAS codons 12 and 13 were compared with an FDA approved method (Qiagen). RESULTS: Twenty-nine of 130 specimens (22.3%) were positive for KRAS codons 12 and 13, with 100% congruence with the Qiagen method. Six additional specimens were identified to have mutations. One mutation in HRAS codon 61, two in KRAS codon 61, and three in NRAS codon 61. CONCLUSION: Limiting RAS testing to only KRAS codons 12 and 13 in companion diagnostic testing of CRC results in nearly 1/5 of patients with RAS mutations not being excluded from costly EGFR antagonist treatment, despite likely futility. Inclusion of all RAS genes in companion diagnostic screening is warranted.

Evolutionary expansion of the Ras switch regulatory module in eukaryotes.

Ras proteins control many aspects of eukaryotic cell homeostasis by switching between active (GTP-bound) and inactive (GDP-bound) conformations, a reaction catalyzed by GTPase exchange factors (GEF) and GTPase activating proteins (GAP) regulators, respectively. Here, we show that the complexity, measured as number of genes, of the canonical Ras switch genetic system (including Ras, RasGEF, RasGAP and RapGAP families) from 24 eukaryotic organisms is correlated with their genome size and is inversely correlated to their evolutionary distances from humans. Moreover, different gene subfamilies within the Ras switch have contributed unevenly to the module's expansion and speciation processes during eukaryote evolution. The Ras system remarkably reduced its genetic expansion after the split of the Euteleostomi clade and presently looks practically crystallized in mammals. Supporting evidence points to gene duplication as the predominant mechanism generating functional diversity in the Ras system, stressing the leading role of gene duplication in the Ras family expansion. Domain fusion and alternative splicing are significant sources of functional diversity in the GAP and GEF families but their contribution is limited in the Ras family. An evolutionary model of the Ras system expansion is proposed suggesting an inherent 'decision making' topology with the GEF input signal integrated by a homologous molecular mechanism and bifurcation in GAP signaling propagation.

Expansion of signal pathways in the ectomycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor- evolution of nucleotide sequences and expression patterns in families of protein kinases and RAS small GTPases.

The ectomycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor has the largest genome of all fungi yet sequenced. The large genome size is partly a result of an expansion of gene family sizes. Among the largest gene families are protein kinases and RAS small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases), which are key components of signal transduction pathways. Comparative genomics and phylogenetic analyses were used to examine the evolution of the two largest families of protein kinases and RAS small GTPases in L. bicolor. Expression levels in various tissues and growth conditions were inferred from microarray data. The two families possessed a large number of young duplicates (paralogs) that had arisen in the Laccaria lineage following the separation from the saprophyte Coprinopsis cinerea. The protein kinase paralogs were dispersed in many small clades and the majority were pseudogenes. By contrast, the RAS paralogs were found in three large groups of RAS1-, RAS2- and RHO1-like GTPases with few pseudogenes. Duplicates of protein kinases and RAS small GTPase have either retained, gained or lost motifs found in the coding regions of their ancestors. Frequent outcomes during evolution were the formation of pseudogenes (nonfunctionalization) or proteins with novel structures and expression patterns (neofunctionalization).

Total ERK1/2 activity regulates cell proliferation.

Regulating ERK activity is essential for normal cell proliferation to occur. In mammals and most vertebrates ERK activity is provided by ERK1 and ERK2 that are highly similar, ubiquitously expressed and share activators and substrates. By combining single and double silencings of ERK1 and ERK2 we recently demonstrated that the apparent dominant role of ERK2 to regulate cell proliferation was due to its markedly higher expression level than ERK1. The contribution of ERK1 was revealed when ERK2 activation was clamped to avoid compensating over-activation of ERK2. We found no evidences in the literature for insulated isoform-specific modules in the Ras/Raf/MEK signaling cascade that could activate specifically ERK1 or ERK2. Obviously in frogs all signal integration and fine modulation provided by three Ras and three Raf isoforms is conducted by only one MEK and one ERK isoform. In mammals, ERK1 and ERK2 display similar specific activities and are activated respectively to their expression levels. After integrating signals from Ras, Raf and MEK isoforms, ERK1 and ERK2 regulate positively cell proliferation according to their expression levels.

Phospholipase C isozymes as effectors of Ras superfamily GTPases.

The physiological effects of many extracellular stimuli are initiated through receptor-promoted activation of phospholipase C and inositol lipid signaling pathways. The historical view that phospholipase C-promoted signaling primarily occurs through activation of heterotrimeric G proteins or tyrosine kinases has expanded in recent years with the realization that at least three different mammalian phospholipase C isozymes are directly activated by members of the Ras superfamily of GTPases. Thus, Ras, Rap, Rac, and Rho GTPases all specifically regulate certain phospholipase C isozymes, and insight into the physiological significance of these signaling responses is beginning to accrue. High resolution three-dimensional structures of phospholipase C isozymes also are beginning to shed light on their mechanism of activation.

Ras oncogenes: split personalities.

Extensive research on the Ras proteins and their functions in cell physiology over the past 30 years has led to numerous insights that have revealed the involvement of Ras not only in tumorigenesis but also in many developmental disorders. Despite great strides in our understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of action of the Ras proteins, the expanding roster of their downstream effectors and the complexity of the signalling cascades that they regulate indicate that much remains to be learnt.

Modification and activation of Ras proteins by electrophilic prostanoids with different structure are site-selective.

Cyclopentenone prostanoids (cyP) arise as important modulators of inflammation and cell proliferation. Although their physiological significance has not been fully elucidated, their potent biological effects have spurred their study as leads for the development of therapeutic agents. A key determinant of cyP action is their ability to bind to thiol groups in proteins or in glutathione through Michael addition. Even though several protein targets for cyP addition have been identified, little is known about the structural determinants from the protein or the cyP that drive this modification. The results herein presented provide the first evidence that cyP with different structures target distinct thiol sites in a protein molecule, namely, H-Ras. Whereas 15-deoxy-Delta12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) and Delta12-PGJ2 preferentially target the C-terminal region containing cysteines 181 and 184, PGA1 and 8-iso-PGA1 bind mainly to cysteine 118, located in the GTP-binding motif. The biological counterparts of this specificity are the site-selective modification and activation of H-Ras in cells and the differential interaction of cyP with H, N, and K-Ras proteins. Cysteine 184 is unique to H-Ras, whereas cysteine 118 is present in the three Ras homologues. Consistent with this, PGA1 binds to and activates H-, N-, and K-Ras, thus differing from the preferential interaction of 15d-PGJ2 with H-Ras. These results put forward the possibility of influencing the selectivity of cyP-protein addition by modifying cyP structure. Furthermore, they may open new avenues for the development of cyP-based drugs.

Transcriptional networks of knockout cell lines identify functional specificities of H-Ras and N-Ras: significant involvement of N-Ras in biotic and defense responses.

We characterized differential gene expression profiles of fibroblast cell lines harboring single or double-homozygous null mutations in H-ras and N-ras. Whereas the expression level of the individual H-, N- and K-ras genes appeared unaffected by the presence or absence of the other ras loci, significant differences were observed between the expression profiles of cells missing N-ras and/or H-ras. Absence of N-ras produced much stronger effects than absence of H-ras over the profile of the cellular transcriptome. N-ras(-/-) and H-ras(-/-) fibroblasts displayed rather antagonistic expression profiles and the transcriptome of H-ras(-/-) cells was significantly closer to that of wild-type fibroblasts than to that of N-ras(-/-) cells. Classifying all differentially expressed genes into functional categories suggested specific roles for H-Ras and N-Ras. It was particularly striking in N-ras(-/-) cells the upregulation of a remarkable number of immunity-related genes, as well as of several loci involved in apoptosis. Reverse-phase protein array assays demonstrated in the same N-ras(-/-) cells the overexpression and nuclear migration of tyrosine phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (Stat1) which was concomitant with transcriptional activation mediated by interferon-stimulated response elements. Significantly enhanced numbers of apoptotic cells were also detected in cultures of N-ras(-/-) cells. Our data support the notion that different Ras isoforms play functionally distinct cellular roles and indicate that N-Ras is significantly involved in immune modulation/host defense and apoptotic responses.

Structural stabilization of GTP-binding domains in circularly permuted GTPases: implications for RNA binding.

GTP hydrolysis by GTPases requires crucial residues embedded in a conserved G-domain as sequence motifs G1-G5. However, in some of the recently identified GTPases, the motif order is circularly permuted. All possible circular permutations were identified after artificially permuting the classical GTPases and subjecting them to profile Hidden Markov Model searches. This revealed G4-G5-G1-G2-G3 as the only possible circular permutation that can exist in nature. It was also possible to recognize a structural rationale for the absence of other permutations, which either destabilize the invariant GTPase fold or disrupt regions that provide critical residues for GTP binding and hydrolysis, such as Switch-I and Switch-II. The circular permutation relocates Switch-II to the C-terminus and leaves it unfastened, thus affecting GTP binding and hydrolysis. Stabilizing this region would require the presence of an additional domain following Switch-II. Circularly permuted GTPases (cpGTPases) conform to such a requirement and always possess an 'anchoring' C-terminal domain. There are four sub-families of cpGTPases, of which three possess an additional domain N-terminal to the G-domain. The biochemical function of these domains, based on available experimental reports and domain recognition analysis carried out here, are suggestive of RNA binding. The features that dictate RNA binding are unique to each subfamily. It is possible that RNA-binding modulates GTP binding or vice versa. In addition, phylogenetic analysis indicates a closer evolutionary relationship between cpGTPases and a set of universally conserved bacterial GTPases that bind the ribosome. It appears that cpGTPases are RNA-binding proteins possessing a means to relate GTP binding to RNA binding.

Ras-dva, a member of novel family of small GTPases, is required for the anterior ectoderm patterning in the Xenopus laevis embryo.

Ras-like small GTPases are involved in the regulation of many processes essential for the specification of the vertebrate body plan. Recently, we identified the gene of novel small GTPase Ras-dva, which is specifically expressed at the anterior margin of the neural plate of the Xenopus laevis embryo. Now, we demonstrate that Ras-dva and its homologs in other species constitute a novel protein family, distinct from the previously known families of small GTPases. We show that the expression of Ras-dva begins during gastrulation throughout the anterior ectoderm and is activated by the homeodomain transcription factor Otx2; however, later on, Ras-dva expression is inhibited in the anterior neural plate by another homeodomain factor Xanf1. Downregulation of Ras-dva functioning by the dominant-negative mutant or by the antisense morpholino oligonucleotides results in severe malformations of the forebrain and derivatives of the cranial placodes. Importantly, although the observed abnormalities can be rescued by co-injection of the Ras-dva mRNA, they cannot be rescued by the mRNA of the closest Ras-dva homolog from another family of small GTPases, Ras. This fact indicates functional specificity of the Ras-dva signaling pathway. At the molecular level, downregulation of Ras-dva inhibits the expression of several regulators of the anterior neural plate and folds patterning, such as Otx2, BF-1 (also known as Foxg1), Xag2, Pax6, Slug and Sox9, and interferes with FGF8 signaling within the anterior ectoderm. By contrast, expression of the epidermal regulator BMP4 and its target genes, Vent1, Vent2b and Msx1, is upregulated. Together, the data obtained indicate that Ras-dva is an essential component of the signaling network that patterns the early anterior neural plate and the adjacent ectoderm in the Xenopus laevis embryos.

Biochemical clustering of monomeric GTPases of the Ras superfamily.

To date phylogeny has been used to compare entire families of proteins based on their nucleotide or amino acid sequence. Here we developed a novel analytical platform allowing a systematic comparison of protein families based on their biochemical properties. This approach was validated on the Rho subfamily of GTPases. We used two high throughput methods, referred to as AlphaScreen and FlashPlate, to measure nucleotide binding capacity, exchange, and hydrolysis activities of small monomeric GTPases. These two technologies have the characteristics to be very sensitive and to allow homogenous and high throughput assays. To analyze and integrate the data obtained, we developed an algorithm that allows the classification of GTPases according to their enzymatic activities. Integration and hierarchical clustering of these results revealed unexpected features of the small Rho GTPases when compared with primary sequence-based trees. Hence we propose a novel phylobiochemical classification of the Ras superfamily of GTPases.

Roc, a Ras/GTPase domain in complex proteins.

We identified a novel group of the Ras/GTPase superfamily, termed Roc, that is present as domain in complex proteins together with other domains, including leucine-rich repeats (LRRs), ankyrin repeats, WD40 repeats, kinase domains, RasGEF and RhoGAP domains. Roc is always succeeded by a novel 300-400-amino-acid-long domain, termed COR. Proteins with Roc/COR are present in prokaryotes, Dictyostelium, plants and metazoa.

C-terminal sequences in R-Ras are involved in integrin regulation and in plasma membrane microdomain distribution.

The small GTPases R-Ras and H-Ras are highly homologous proteins with contrasting biological properties, for example, they differentially modulate integrin affinity: H-Ras suppresses integrin activation in fibroblasts whereas R-Ras can reverse this effect of H-Ras. To gain insight into the sequences directing this divergent phenotype, we investigated a panel of H-Ras/R-Ras chimeras and found that sequences in the R-Ras hypervariable C-terminal region including amino acids 175-203 are required for the R-Ras ability to increase integrin activation in CHO cells; however, the proline-rich site in this region, previously reported to bind the adaptor protein Nck, was not essential for this effect. In addition, we found that the GTPase TC21 behaved similarly to R-Ras. Because the C-termini of Ras proteins can control their subcellular localization, we compared the localization of H-Ras and R-Ras. In contrast to H-Ras, which migrates out of lipid rafts upon activation, we found that activated R-Ras remained localized to lipid rafts. However, functionally distinct H-Ras/R-Ras chimeras containing different C-terminal R-Ras segments localized to lipid rafts irrespective of their integrin phenotype.

Small GTPases and the evolution of the eukaryotic cell.

The origin of eukaryotes is one of the major challenges of evolutionary cell biology. Other than the endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, the steps leading to eukaryotic endomembranes and endoskeleton are poorly understood. Ras-family small GTPases are key regulators of cytoskeleton dynamics, vesicular trafficking and nuclear function. They are specific for eukaryotes and their expansion probably traces the evolution of core eukaryote features. The phylogeny of small GTPases suggests that the first endomembranes to evolve during eukaryote evolution had secretory, and not phagocytic, function. Based on the reconstruction of putative roles for ancestral small GTPases, a hypothetical scenario on the origins of the first endomembranes, the nucleus, and phagocytosis is presented.

Mechanisms of Ras protein targeting in mammalian cells.

Many physiological and oncogenic activities of the "classical" Ras proteins (H-Ras, N-Ras and K-Ras4A and -4B) require their correct localization to the plasma membrane. Nascent Ras proteins, however, initially associate with endomembranes (the ER and in some cases the Golgi) to complete the processing of their farnesylated carboxyl-termini before they are delivered to the plasma membrane. Recent work has revealed the outlines of the intracellular pathways by which Ras proteins reach their ultimate plasma membrane destination and has indicated that these pathways differ for different Ras species. Other studies have demonstrated that mature Ras proteins can transfer between the plasma membrane and intracellular membranes, and that Ras proteins may in some cases signal from intracellular compartments. This review will describe recent progress and still-unresolved questions in these areas.