The interpretation of human body in traditional Chinese medicine and its influence on the characteristics of TCM theory.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a long history of serving the Chinese people's health since its birth, including playing an important role in treating and preventing COVID-19 in 2020. The fact that TCM has been used in China for thousands of years shows the value and reason why it must exist. Although TCM has been or is being questioned, there is no doubt about its importance in terms of efficacy. This article focuses on how TCM understands the human body in comparison with anatomy knowledge in western medicine and discusses the development and advances of TCM in terms of the body view and the theory innovation. The purpose is to let foreign scholars get better understanding of TCM from this perspective.

[Qi Runs Through Acupuncture Needle Stimulation and Pulse Diagnosis:Our Considerations About Connotations of Qi in Acupuncture-Diagnosis-Treatment Scriptures in Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon].

The ancient classic work Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon has abundant expositions about the relationship between the acupuncture needle manipulation and pulse diagnosis. However, the relevant imparting and inheritance situations are relatively weaker nowadays probably due to the rapid development of modern diagnosis-therapeutic techniques and some faults or careless omission in understanding classical medical works. Qi, a core concept of the abundant expositions in Inner Canon, has seldom been thoroughly interpreted about its connotations. For this reason, in the present paper, the authors make a careful explanation about the connotations of Qi in Inner Canon from 1) the concept of Qikou (a superficial window of the body reflecting the functional state of internal organs), 2) pulse conditions, 3) its relationship with meridian-collateral diagnosis, and 4) the link between acupuncture needle stimulation and pulse diagnosis based on the scriptures and words description in combination with many scholars' doctrines, trying to explore its profound significance. In addition, the authors also expound its association with the effectiveness of distant treatment of acupuncture and the characteristics in relation to ancient medical scholars' thoughts.

[Qijie theory of LAI's Tongyuan acupuncture technique].

Qijie theory is one of the important components of TCM meridian and collateral system. It is the shortcut for the communication from the exterior to the interior and for the transverse connection, strengthens the therapeutic effects of acupuncture and moxibustion on the disorders of internal organs and enlarges the indications of acupoints. Professor LAI Xinsheng originally creats Tongyuan acupuncture technique. It is a kind of acupuncture therapeutic methods, including promoting the circulation of the governor vessel, regulating the mind and conducting qi to the origin. In order to analyze the connection between Tongyuan acupuncture technique and traditional meridian and collateral theory, the connotations of Tongyuan acupuncture technique and qijie, as well as the in-terrelationship between them are taken as the basis in the paper. By tracing the literature records, the original concept of qijie is detected. Through proving clinically Tongyuan acupuncture technique, it is revealed that qijie is the arrowhead on the main road of meridian qi circulation and is the essential connotation of the direct path of the body surface connecting with the deep layers of the body as well as the zangfu organs and tissues. It is summarized that the traditional qijie theory provides the powerful theoretic evidence for the treatment with Tongyuan acupuncture technique.

[From the qi annotation in Xiaozhenjie to qi view in the ancient time].

Xiaozhenjie (Miraculous Pivot Chapter 3: Annotation of Fine Needle) is the earliest annotation of Jiuzhen Shieryuan (Miraculous Pivot Chapter 1: Nine Needles and Twelve Yuan-Primary Acupoints). There are particularly 24 annotations of qi in the chapter. Based on the original literature, the styles of qi annotationsl were divided into three categories. By comparing with the original text, semantic features of qi annotations were reasoned. In reference to the understandings and notes of qi annotations given by the scholars of different dynasties, the origin of qi connotation in the ancient time was clarified so as to provide the historical evidence to the for-mation of this unique "qi language" and "qi worldview". It presents the instructive significance to understand and interpret "qi" for the scholars in the modern time.

[Professor GAO Yuchun's experience on "sequential acupuncture leads to smooth movement of qi"].

Professor GAO Yuchun is considered as the key successor of GAO's academic school of acupuncture and moxibustion in Yanzhao region. Professor GAO's clinical experience of, "sequential acupuncture" is introduced in details in this article. In Professor GAO's opinions, appropriate acupuncture sequence is the key to satisfactory clinical effects during treatment. Based on different acupoints, sequential acupuncture can achieve the aim of qi following needles and needles leading qi; based on different symptoms, sequential acupuncture can regulate qi movement; based on different body positions, sequential acupuncture can harmonize qi-blood and reinforcing deficiency and reducing excess. In all, according to the differences of disease condition and constitution, based on the accurate acupoint selection and appropriate manipulation, it is essential to capture the nature of diseases and make the order of acupuncture, which can achieve the aim of regulating qi movement and reinforcing deficiency and reducing excess.

A Disorder of Qi: Breathing Exercise as a Cure for Neurasthenia in Japan, 1900-1945.

Neurasthenia became a common disease and caused widespread concern in Japan at the turn of the twentieth century, whereas only a couple of decades earlier the term "nerve" had been unfamiliar, if not unknown, to many Japanese. By exploring the theories and practices of breathing exercise-one of the most popular treatments for neurasthenia at the time-this paper attempts to understand how people who practiced breathing exercises for their nervous ills perceived, conceived, and accordingly cared for their nerves. It argues that they understood "nerve" based on their existing conceptions of qi Neurasthenia was for them a disorder of qi, although the qi had assumed modern appearances as blood and nervous current. The paper hopes to contribute to the understanding of how the concept of nerves has been accepted and assimilated in East Asia. It also points out the need to understand the varied cultures of nerves not only at the level of concept and metaphor, but also at the level of perception and experience.

[Acupuncture technique of "five elements motion and six kinds of qi"].

The origin and development of "five elements motion and six kinds of qi" acupuncture technique are reviewed, and acupuncture for treatment and prevention of disorders of "five elements motion and six kinds of qi" is summarized. Also its principle is analyzed. Problems such as the inconformity of acupoint selection, lack of systematic theory are discussed. It is pointed out that, instead of indiscriminate copy, treatment should be based on the observation of the transportation and transformation of qi; it is suggested that the classics should be inherited and innovated, combining the tradition with contemporary, and according to a sixty-year cycle, the acupuncture technique of "five elements motion and six kinds of qi" can be improved systematically for promotion and application.

[Original meaning of mai and its academic evolution].

Mai is the important concept in TCM and this term has been found in the early classic work of TCM. With the development and perfection of TCM theory, the original meaning of mai is "blood vessels entirely distrusted in the body". In five dynasties, the meaning of it was supplemented as "distribution of qi and blood in five zang and six fu organs to the four extremities", in which, not only blood but also qi has been included. With the constant understanding on mai, qi and blood, the unique concept of meridian and collateral is gradually generated. In terms of the modern study on the original meaning of mai and the academic evolution of meridian and collateral, it is discovered that qi is predominated and distributed in meridian and collateral as compared with blood. It is very significant to study the original meaning and academic evolution of mai, as well as the origin of the concept of meridian and collateral and to provide the reference support for the terminology standardization and basic study.

[Connotation exploration of vessel and meridian: from concretization to abstraction].

According to the records in Neijing (Internal Classic), this article discusses the relationship during the connotative evolution of mai (vessel) and jing (meridian) in the three aspects, named mai (vessels), the evolution from mai (vessel) to jing (meridian), and the connotation replacement of jing (meridian) with mai (vessel). The study results show that the connotation of Jingmai is originated from mai (vessel), but more enriched, which cannot be confused with each other. The recognition on the connotation of jingmai from mai (vessel) to jing (meridian) is the process of TCM understanding from concretization to abstraction, and from the entity to the concept. Jing (meridian) represents the law on the longitudinal and invariable running course of meridian, differenti from the perspective in western medicine in human body. This law results from the naive observation and is based on the rational summary and thinking, and it stands up the approval from practice. The description of jing (meridian) as mai (vessel) is just the superficial description of this term. In fact, its concept infers to the connotation of meridian.

[Acupuncture theory of promoting blood circulation and removing stasis and its clinical application].

The effects and methods of acupuncture on promoting blood circulation and removing stasis and its importance for modern clinical acupuncture are explored and explained. The acupuncture theory of promoting blood circulation and removing stasis in Internal Canon of Yellow Emperor and the ancient medical scholars' knowledge of acupuncture for promoting blood circulation and removing stasis are traced, and then the principles and characteristics of acupuncture for promoting blood circulation and removing stasis are explored and summarized. The methods and common tools of prompting blood circulation and removing stasis of modern clinical acupuncture are summed up as well. It is considered that the treatment principles and methods of acupuncture for prompting blood and removing stasis deserve to be paid attention to and applied by all departments of clinical acupuncture.

[Our viewpoints on Deqi in the later ages after birth of classical works "The Yellow Emperor's Internal Classic" and "Canon of Difficult Medical Problems"].

In our previous paper, we analyzed "Deqi" in book Huangdi Neijing (The Yellow Emperor's Internal Classic) and Nanjing (Canon of Difficult Medical Problems) from "Zhishen"(Treating mentality) and Tiaoqi (Regulating qi). In the present paper, the authors discuss the connotations of "Deqi" and related events in the later ages of the abovementioned two classic books to the later stage of the Qing Dynasty when involves about 20 classical works as Zhenjiu Dacheng ( The Great Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion), Zhenjing Zhinan (Guide to the classics of Acupuncture), Zhenjiu Daquan (A Complete Works of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) etc. from 1) close association between "Deqi" and patients' mental activity; 2) how to wait for arrival of qi if the needling does not induce "Deqi" for the time being; 3) how to identify "qi-arrival" and then, performing suitable manipulations; 4) Deqi and shallow- or deep-needling; 5) putting more emphasis on patients' feeling and reactions, rather than the practitioners perception beneath the needle which is described in book Huangdi Neijing; and 6) not withdrawing the acupuncture needles if qi does not arrive. Generally, in the later ages, the connotations of Deqi are enriched greatly.

[Jingjin and weiqi].

This is to investigate the relationship between jingjin (the meridian of muscle region) and weiqi (the defensive qi) by referring to relevant studies. Jingjin is inherent in weiqi and originated from the meridian of foot-taiyang. It receives weiqi from the extremities and expands to several meridians of muscle regions. Jingjin is where weiqi travels and distributes. When weiqi combines with exogenous pathogens, this leads to Bi syndrome of meridian muscle regions. The analysis results in that the twelve kinds of Bi syndrome of meridian muscle regions belong to the category of Bi syndrome, which is caused by the invasion of pathogenic wind-cold-dampness into the muscle. The pathogenesis is related to the disorder of weiqi circulation. It is summarized that jingjin is closely related to weiqi and reflected in physiology and pathology, etc. The study guides to the diagnosis and treatment of jingjin diseases.

[Analysis on regulating deqi in the ancient works of the late dynasties].

From the time of Neijing (Internal Classic) and Nanjing (Classic of Medical Problems) till the end of Qing dynasty, the medical scholars of each dynasty had taken the recognition of deqi as the subject in the stud- ies. Through the historical analysis, the content of regulating deqi was further understood in relevant ancient liter- ature. By checking the ancient works of acupuncture in each dynasty till the end of Qing dynasty, in reference to the evidences in over 10 works, such as Zhenjiu Dacheng (Great Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) , Zhenjing Zhinan (Instruction of Acupuncture Canon), Zhenjiu Daquan, and in association with the academic views of acupuncture masters in modern time, it was discovered that the medical scholars after the time of Neijing and Nanjing had enriched the understandings of deqi, such as the connection of cold and heat reaction, radiation to the affected site, reinforcing and reducing purpose in qi regulation. The methods of deqi regulations had, been explored till the end of Qing dynasty since the time of Neijing and Nanjing and the understandings of it were vari- ous among scholars.

Historical and clinical perspectives on de qi: exposing limitations in the scientific study of de qi.

De qi is a concept most often associated with patient experiences during needling in acupuncture treatment. A review of the early historical literature on acupuncture shows that texts tended to describe de qi and its associated concept, qi zhi more in terms of practitioner-based phenomena and that this is something more in the realm of the experienced practitioner (i.e., it is skill based). Many modern authors in Asia and the West also describe the importance of practitioner-based experiences in the de qi of acupuncture, further implying that this may lie at the heart of the treatment effects of acupuncture. A review of scientific studies on de qi shows that qualitative studies have focused almost exclusively on patient-based aspects of de qi while quantitative studies have focused exclusively on them. There thus exists a gap in current research on the phenomenon of de qi that possibly reveals weakness in the wider study of acupuncture. It is important that precise qualitative studies of the practitioner-based aspects of de qi begin soon and as they become better understood, quantitative research also is initiated. This research will not only better inform clinical trials and physiologic research of acupuncture in general but could contribute significantly to rethinking of how to train practitioners.

[Getting qi and arrival of qi].

In order to clarify the inter-relationship between getting qi and arrival of qi, the relevant theory in the Inner Canon of Yellow Emperor is re-considered, and then the relationship of the two concepts by combining with some opinions from scholars is compared and analyzed. Getting qi is the signal of acupuncture at an acupoint; also it is a sign of arrival of qi at an acupoint; what's more, it is the premise for reinforcing or reducing manipulation. The sensation of arrival of qi comes from both doctors and patients, characterized with explicit symptoms including "tight and swift", "sunken, sticky and tight", "light, loose and slow", "warm at the acupoint" or "cold at the acupoint" as well as implicit symptom including "qi moving along the meridians"; also there is the condition of qi regulation that is characterized with "paced and harmony" stomach qi. The arrival of qi could be divided into "qi moving to the needles" and "qi traveling to the diseases". The "qi moving to the needles" has similar meaning to getting qi. The "qi traveling to the diseases" is reflected as "qi arrival with efficacy" and characterized as an immediate effect or a delayed effect. There are differences between the concepts of getting qi and arrival of qi. Getting qi focuses on the importance of the doctor during acupuncture processes (differentiate the nature of qi, guard qi, manipulate qi), which also suggests the clinical significance of implicit getting qi. "Arrival of qi" emphasizes "qi arrival with efficacy", and indicates that during treatment the differences of the exterior or interior and deficit or surplus should be distinguished. For external and shallow diseases involving myofascia-related diseases, miu needling and shallow needling can achieve an immediate treatment effect; for deep, internal and deficient diseases, reinforcing or reducing manipulation should be used to achieve stomach qi, which has delayed effects but can be used as an indicator. It is believed that pulse diagnosis shall not be neglected in clinical treatment of acupuncture.

The excitations and suppressions of the times: locating the emotions in the liver in modern Chinese medicine.

This paper explores how doctors of Chinese medicine have borrowed from a long history of scholarship on the problem of "constraint" to develop treatments for modern emotion-related disorders, such as depression. I argue that this combining of medical practices was made possible by a complex sequence of events. First, doctors in the 1920 and 1930s were engaged in a critical reexamination of the entire corpus of Chinese medical knowledge. Spurred by the encounter with European imperialism, the sudden rise of Japan as a new power in East Asia, and the political struggles to establish a Chinese nation state, these scholars were among the first to speculate on the possible relationship between Chinese medicine and Western medicine. Second, in the 1950 and 1960s, doctors like other intellectuals were focused on national reunification and institution building. They rejected some of the experimental claims of their predecessors to focus on identifying the key characteristics of Chinese medicine, such as the methodology of "pattern recognition and treatment determination bianzheng lunzhi." The flexibility of the new bianzheng lunzhi paradigm allowed doctors to quietly adopt innovations from their early twentieth century counterparts that they ostensibly rejected, ultimately paving the way for contemporary treatments of depression.

Depression, constraint, and the liver: (Dis)assembling the treatment of emotion-related disorders in Chinese medicine.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is today practiced worldwide, rivaling biomedicine in terms of its globalization. One of the most common TCM diagnoses is "Liver qi constraint," which, in turn, is commonly treated by an herbal formula dating back to the 10th century. In everyday TCM practice, biomedical disease categories such as depression or anxiety and popular disease categories such as stress are often conflated with the Chinese medical notion of constraint. Medical anthropologists, meanwhile, argue that constraint reveals to us a distinctive aesthetics of constructing body/persons in Chinese culture, while psychologists seek to define constraint as a distinctive psychiatric disorder distinctive from depression and anxiety. All of these actors agree in defining constraint as a concept dating back two thousand years to the very origins of Chinese medicine. This article disassembles the articulations by means of which these different facts about constraint are constructed. It shows how ideas about constraint as a disorder caused by the penetration of external pathogens into the body were gradually transformed from the eleventh century onward into constraint as an emotion-related disorder, while treatment strategies were adjusted to match perceptions about body/self that developed among the gentry elite of southeast China in late imperial China.

Treating emotion-related disorders in Japanese traditional medicine: language, patients and doctors.

This paper analyses how the conceptual and therapeutic formation of Japanese traditional medicine (Kampo) has been socially constructed through interactions with popular interpretations of illness. Taking the example of emotion-related disorders, this paper focuses on the changing meaning of constraint (utsu) in Kampo medicine. Utsu was once a name for one of the most frequently cited emotion-related disorders and pathological concerns during the Edo period. With the spread of Western medicine in the Meiji period, neurasthenia replaced utsu as the dominant emotion-related disorder in Japanese society. As a result, post-Meiji doctors developed other conceptual tools and strategies to respond to these new disease categories, innovations that continue to influence contemporary practitioners. I begin this history by focusing on Wada Tokaku, a Japanese doctor of the Edo period who developed a unique theory and treatment strategy for utsu. Secondly, I examine. Yomuto Kyushin and Mori Dohaku, Kampo doctors of the early twentieth century, who privileged neurasthenia over utsu in their medical practice. The paper concludes with a discussion of the flexibility and complexity of Kampo medicine, how its theory and practices have been influenced by cross-cultural changes in medicine and society, while incorporating the popular experience of illness as well.

[Analysis on Qijie (pathway of qi) theory of acupuncturology].

In order to clarify the connotation and academic significance of the term Qijie (pathway of qi) in Chinese medicine, the author of the present article collected related ancient literature and made a theoretical analysis on its concept, its relevance to the content of Sihai (four seas i.e.: 1) the brain, the sea of marrow, 2) Danzhong, the sea of qi; 3) stomach: the sea of water and food; 4) Chongmai, the sea of the 12 meridians), its related application and the evolution of the relationship between acupoints and their subordinated meridian. The author holds that the four Qijie aims at explaining the underlying mechanism of acupoints located on the head, chest and abdominal regions. The four Qijie theory was established in the transition period of the developmental process of meridian-acupoint theory, and is of realistic significance in elucidating the correlation between the back shu-acupoints and zang-fu organs.

Recognition of dementia in ancient China.

A search of previous records in the literatures was done to summarize the opinions for dementia in ancient China. The earliest description of dementia was traced in the Yellow emperor's internal classic, a book written 2000 years ago. Hua Tuo (AD 140-208) in Han Dynasty first denominated "dementia" in the book, Hua Tuo Shen Yi Mi Zhuan. The pathogenesis of dementia could be generalized as the insufficiency of Qi, a flowing energy; the stagnation of phlegm, a harmful liquid substance in the body; and the blood stasis, which were also regarded as therapeutic targets. Therefore, we can conclude that dementia has been recognized and investigated in traditional Chinese medicine, which is definitely before the industrial civilization era.