Diagnostic Positron Emission Tomography Imaging with Zirconium-89 Desferrioxamine B Squaramide: From Bench to Bedside.

ConspectusMolecular imaging with antibodies radiolabeled with positron-emitting radionuclides combines the affinity and selectivity of antibodies with the sensitivity of Positron Emission Tomography (PET). PET imaging allows the visualization and quantification of the biodistribution of the injected radiolabeled antibody, which can be used to characterize specific biological interactions in individual patients. This characterization can provide information about the engagement of the antibody with a molecular target such as receptors present in elevated levels in tumors as well as providing insight into the distribution and clearance of the antibody. Potential applications of clinical PET with radiolabeled antibodies include identifying patients for targeted therapies, characterization of heterogeneous disease, and monitoring treatment response.Antibodies often take several days to clear from the blood pool and localize in tumors, so PET imaging with radiolabeled antibodies requires the use of a radionuclide with a similar radioactive half-life. Zirconium-89 is a positron-emitting radionuclide that has a radioactive half-life of 78 h and relatively low positron emission energy that is well suited to radiolabeling antibodies. It is essential that the zirconium-89 radionuclide be attached to the antibody through chemistry that provides an agent that is stable in vivo with respect to the dissociation of the radionuclide without compromising the biological activity of the antibody.This Account focuses on our research using a simple derivative of the bacterial siderophore desferrioxamine (DFO) with a squaramide ester functional group, DFO-squaramide (DFOSq), to link the chelator to antibodies. In our work, we produce conjugates with an average ∼4 chelators per antibody, and this does not compromise the binding of the antibody to the target. The resulting antibody conjugates of DFOSq are stable and can be easily radiolabeled with zirconium-89 in high radiochemical yields and purity. Automated methods for the radiolabeling of DFOSq-antibody conjugates have been developed to support multicenter clinical trials. Evaluation of several DFOSq conjugates with antibodies and low molecular weight targeting agents in tumor mouse models gave PET images with high tumor uptake and low background. The promising preclinical results supported the translation of this chemistry to human clinical trials using two different radiolabeled antibodies. The potential clinical impact of these ongoing clinical trials is discussed.The use of DFOSq to radiolabel relatively low molecular weight targeting molecules, peptides, and peptide mimetics is also presented. Low molecular weight molecules typically clear the blood pool and accumulate in target tissue more rapidly than antibodies, so they are usually radiolabeled with positron-emitting radionuclides with shorter radioactive half-lives such as fluorine-18 (t1/2 ∼ 110 min) or gallium-68 (t1/2 ∼ 68 min). Radiolabeling peptides and peptide mimetics with zirconium-89, with its longer radioactive half-life (t1/2 = 78 h), could facilitate the centralized manufacture and distribution of radiolabeled tracers. In addition, the ability to image patients at later time points with zirconium-89 based agents (e.g. 4-24 h after injection) may also allow the delineation of small or low-uptake disease sites as the delayed imaging results in increased clearance of the tracer from nontarget tissue and lower background signal.

Synthesis of Unsymmetrical Squaramides as Allosteric GSK-3ß Inhibitors Promoting ß-Catenin-Mediated Transcription of TCF/LEF in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells.

The glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK-3ß) is a ubiquitous enzyme that is a validated target for the development of potential therapeutics useful in several diseases including retinal degeneration. Aiming at developing an innovative class of allosteric inhibitors of GSK-3ß potentially useful for retinal degeneration, we explored the class of squaramides. The developed compounds (6 a-l) were obtained through a nontoxic one-pot synthetic protocol, which employs low-cost goods and avoids any purification step. Ethanol was used as the reaction solvent, simultaneously allowing the pure reaction products' recovery (by precipitation). Out of this set of squaramides, 6 j stood out, from computational and enzymatic converging data, as an ATP non-competitive inhibitor of GSK-3ß of micromolar potency. When engaged in cellular studies using retinal pigment epithelial cells (ARPE-19) transfected with a luciferase reporter gene under the control of T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor (TCF/LEF) binding sites, 6 j was able to dose-dependently induce ß-catenin nuclear accumulation, as shown by the increased luciferase activity at a concentration of 2.5 µM.

Squaramide-Tethered Sulfonamides and Coumarins: Synthesis, Inhibition of Tumor-Associated CAs IX and XII and Docking Simulations.

(1) Background: carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are attractive targets for the development of new anticancer therapies; in particular, CAs IX and XII isoforms are overexpressed in numerous tumors. (2) Methods: following the tail approach, we have appended a hydrophobic aromatic tail to a pharmacophore responsible for the CA inhibition (aryl sulfonamide, coumarin). As a linker, we have used squaramides, featured with strong hydrogen bond acceptor and donor capacities. (3) Results: Starting from easily accessible dimethyl squarate, the title compounds were successfully obtained as crystalline solids, avoiding the use of chromatographic purifications. Interesting and valuable SARs could be obtained upon modification of the length of the hydrocarbon chain, position of the sulfonamido moiety, distance of the aryl sulfonamide scaffold to the squaramide, stereoelectronic effects on the aromatic ring, as well as the number and type of substituents on C-3 and C-4 positions of the coumarin. (4) Conclusions: For sulfonamides, the best profile was achieved for the m-substituted derivative 11 (Ki = 29.4, 9.15 nM, CA IX and XII, respectively), with improved selectivity compared to acetazolamide, a standard drug. Coumarin derivatives afforded an outstanding selectivity (Ki > 10,000 nM for CA I, II); the lead compound (16c) was a strong CA IX and XII inhibitor (Ki = 19.2, 7.23 nM, respectively). Docking simulations revealed the key ligand-enzyme interactions.

Enantioselective synthesis of isoxazole-containing spirooxindole tetrahydroquinolines via squaramide-catalysed cascade reactions.

A class of o-sulfonylaminostyryl isoxazole synthons were designed and demonstrated to be useful building blocks in asymmetric cascade aza-Michael/Michael reaction with 3-olefinic oxindoles. This squaramide-catalysed cascade reaction afforded structurally complex isoxazole-containing spirooxindole tetrahydroquinolines bearing three contiguous stereocenters in good to excellent yields (up to 99%) with high diastereoselectivities (up to >20 : 1 dr) and enantioselectivities (up to 88% ee). Moreover, the gram-scale synthesis and synthetic transformations were also demonstrated.

A bioisosteric approach to the discovery of novel N-aryl-N'-[4-(aryloxy)cyclohexyl]squaramide-based activators of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2α) phosphorylation.

Inhibition of translation initiation has emerging implications for the development of mechanism-based anticancer therapeutics. Phosphorylation of eIF2α is recognized as a key target that regulates the translation initiation cascade. Based on the bioisosteric replacement of urea-derived eIF2α phosphorylation activator 1, a novel series of N-aryl-N'-[4-(aryloxy)cyclohexyl]squaramide derivatives was designed and synthesized; their effects on the activation of eIF2α phosphorylation was assessed systematically. A brief structure-activity relationship analysis was established by stepwise structural optimization of the squaramide series. Subsequently, the antiproliferative activities of the selected analogues were determined in human leukemia K562 cells. We then identified 10 potent eIF2α phosphorylation activators with considerable anticancer activity. The most promising analogues 19 and 40 possessed higher cancer cell selectivity (SI = 6.16 and 4.83, respectively) than parent 1 (SI = 2.20). Finally, protein expression analysis revealed that compounds 19 and 40 induced eIF2α phosphorylation and its downstream effectors ATF4 and CHOP.

Enantioselective synthesis of tetrahydrofuran spirooxindoles via domino oxa-Michael/Michael addition reaction using a bifunctional squaramide catalyst.

An enantioselective approach for the synthesis of tetrahydrofuran spirooxindoles via domino oxa-Michael/Michael addition reaction of γ-hydroxyenones to isatylidene malononitriles, using a cinchona derived bifunctional squaramide catalyst has been developed. The methodology is the first success of enantioselective oxa-Michael addition to isatylidene malononitriles. The spiro products were obtained in excellent yields with moderate to good enantio- and diastereoselectivities. Scale-up of the reaction and synthetic transformation of the spiro product into structurally complex molecules have been performed.

Facile Synthesis of a Fluorinated-Squaramide Covalent Organic Framework for the Highly Efficient and Broad-Spectrum Removal of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Pollutants.

The escalating contamination by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has become an urgent issue in recent years, and the structural diversity of PFAS is the major challenge for effective pollution control. Herein, we take the intrinsic advantages of squaramide and prepare a new two-dimensional covalent organic framework (FSQ-1) that exhibits broad-spectrum PFAS affinity. The tailor-made linker forges hydrogen-bond donors, hydrogen-bond acceptors, and fluorophilic segments into one framework. The obtained material exhibits multipoint and multitype affinity to PFAS with different structures, by which high-efficient and broad-spectrum removal of various PFAS can be simultaneously achieved. Notably, the thermodynamic profiles provided by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) experiments further illustrate the underlying mechanism of the broad-spectrum affinity. FSQ-1 can also be applied for efficient PFAS extraction in trace-level PFAS analysis.

Asymmetric Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition with Ir(I)/Squaramide Cooperative Catalysis: Atroposelective Synthesis of Axially Chiral Aryltriazoles.

An Ir(I)/squaramide cooperative catalytic strategy for atroposelective synthesis of axially chiral aryltriazoles has been developed for the first time. Diverse structurally novel aryltriazole skeletons that cannot be accessed by traditional click reactions were synthesized in good yields with excellent enantioselectivity. Both enantiomers were easily obtained from a pair of diastereoisomeric natural quinidine- and quinine-derived squaramides. A significant Ir(I)/squaramide coordination activation, but no self-quenching phenomenon was observed in this metal/organo cooperative catalytic system.

Chiral Squaramide Catalyzed Asymmetric Spiroketalization toward Aromatic [6,5] Spiroketals.

Herein is disclosed an efficient enantio- and diastereoselective spiroketalization of aromatic ketone tethered to ortho-homoformyl and enone moiety via in situ enol formation using quinine derived squaramide organocatalyst to access aromatic [6,5] spiroketals with complete atom economy. Furthermore, aromatic spiroketals undergo Brønsted acid catalyzed Piancatelli type rearrangement to provide dihydronaphtho[1,2-b]furans with retention of the enantioselectivities.

A novel isosteviol-based bifunctional squaramide organocatalyst for enantioselective Michael addition of acetylacetone to nitroolefins.

Chiral amine-squaramide is a kind of effective hydrogen bond donor bifunctional catalyst to promote many asymmetric transformations. In this paper, novel chiral tertiary amine-squaramide derived from the natural product of the stevioside was developed and applied into the asymmetric Michael addition of acetylacetone to nitroolefins. This asymmetric reaction performed well, and a series of enantiomerically enriched compounds were obtained in high yields (up to 96%) with excellent enantioselectivities (up to 99% ee).

Enantioselective synthesis of coumarins catalyzed by an isosteviol-derived tertiary amine-squaramide catalyst.

A newly tertiary amine-squaramide organocatalyst has been successfully developed and applied into the asymmetric Michael addition of 4-hydroxycoumarin to ß,γ-unsaturated α-ketoesters. The catalyst system performed well with a low catalyst loading of 1 mol% under mild reaction conditions. A series of coumarin derivatives were obtained in good to high yields (up to 97%) with high enantioselectivities (up to 96% ee).

Fluorescence Recognition of Anions Using a Heteroditopic Receptor: Homogenous and Two-Phase Sensing.

In contrast to monotopic receptor 3, the anthracene functionalized squaramide dual-host receptor 1 is capable of selectively extracting sulfate salts, as was evidenced unambiguously by DOSY, mass spectrometry, fluorescent and ion chromatography measurements. The receptors were investigated in terms of anion and ion pair binding using the UV-vis and 1H NMR titrations method in acetonitrile. The reference anion receptor 3, lacking a crown ether unit, was found to lose the enhancement in anion binding induced by the presence of cations. Besides the ability to bind anions in an enhanced manner exhibited by ion pair receptors 2 and 4, changing the 1-aminoanthracene substituent resulted in their exhibiting a lower anion affinity than receptor 1. By using receptor 1 and adjusting the water content in organic phase it was possible to selectively detect sulfates both by "turn-off" and "turn-on" fluorescence, and to do so homogenously and under interfacial conditions. Such properties of receptor 1 have allowed the development of a new type of sensor capable of recognizing and extracting potassium sulfate from the aqueous medium across a phase boundary, resulting in an appropriate fluorescent response in the organic solution.

Cooperative Hydrogen-Bond-Donor Catalysis with Hydrogen Chloride Enables Highly Enantioselective Prins Cyclization Reactions.

Cooperative asymmetric catalysis with hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chiral dual-hydrogen-bond donors (HBDs) is applied successfully to highly enantioselective Prins cyclization reactions of a wide variety of simple alkenyl aldehydes. The optimal chiral catalysts were designed to withstand the strongly acidic reaction conditions and were found to induce rate accelerations of 2 orders of magnitude over reactions catalyzed by HCl alone. We propose that the combination of strong mineral acids and chiral hydrogen-bond-donor catalysts may represent a general strategy for inducing enantioselectivity in reactions that require highly acidic conditions.

[Development of Green Asymmetric Organocatalytic Synthesis].

Organocatalysts, which are less toxic than metal catalysis, as well as inexpensive, environmentally benign, and stable against moisture and oxygen compared to metal-based catalysts, have received considerable attention for being efficient and clean catalysts. With respect to green chemistry, the development of organocatalysis is a significant research subject for a sustainable society. This article reviews studies on the development of novel organocatalysts and the reactions achieved from using them. Focusing on the push-pull ethylene moiety, in which two electron-withdrawing groups (EWGs) were introduced, we proposed that the vinylogous amide proton (N-H) will lead to the design of organocatalysts. We have developed the diaminomethylenemalononitrile (DMM) organocatalysts, which are push-pull ethylenes having two cyano groups as EWGs, and proved that they are effective for highly stereoselective hydrophosphonylation with aldehydes. The catalytic ability of the DMM organocatalyst was demonstrated in the development of the first asymmetric hydrophosphonylation of ketones using organocatalysts. The DMM organocatalyst can be applied to the selective 1,4-addition asymmetric hydrophosphonylation of enones. In addition, we designed and synthesized novel organocatalysts bearing squaramide-sulfonamide motif as multiple hydrogen bond donors. Squaramide-sulfonamide organocatalysts efficiently catalyzed the asymmetric direct vinylogous aldol reactions of furan-2(5H)-one with aldehydes. Successively, we achieved the synthesis of γ,γ-disubstituted-δ-hydroxy-γ-butenolide via asymmetric direct vinylogous aldol reaction of furanone derivatives using the squaramide-sulfonamide organocatalysts.

Synthesis and evaluation of squaramide and thiosquaramide inhibitors of the DNA repair enzyme SNM1A.

SNM1A is a zinc-dependent nuclease involved in the removal of interstrand crosslink lesions from DNA. Inhibition of interstrand crosslink repair enzymes such as SNM1A is a promising strategy for improving the efficacy of crosslinking chemotherapy drugs. Initial studies have demonstrated the feasibility of developing SNM1A inhibitors, but the full potential of this enzyme as a drug target has yet to be explored. Herein, the synthesis of a family of squaramide- and thiosquaramide-bearing nucleoside derivatives and their evaluation as SNM1A inhibitors is reported. A gel electrophoresis assay was used to identify nucleoside derivatives bearing an N-hydroxysquaramide or squaric acid moiety at the 3'-position, and a thymidine derivative bearing a 5'-thiosquaramide, as candidate SNM1A inhibitors. Quantitative IC50 determination showed that a thymidine derivative bearing a 5'-thiosquaramide was the most potent inhibitor, followed by a thymidine derivative bearing a 3'-squaric acid. UV-Vis titrations were carried out to evaluate the binding of the (thio)squaramides to zinc ions, allowing the order of inhibitory potency to be rationalised. The membrane permeability of the active inhibitors was investigated, with several compounds showing promise for future in vivo applications.

In Vitro Evaluation of the Squaramide-Conjugated Fibroblast Activation Protein Inhibitor-Based Agents AAZTA5.SA.FAPi and DOTA.SA.FAPi.

Recently, the first squaramide-(SA) containing FAP inhibitor-derived radiotracers were introduced. DATA5m.SA.FAPi and DOTA.SA.FAPi with their non-radioactive complexes showed high affinity and selectivity for FAP. After a successful preclinical study with [68Ga]Ga-DOTA.SA.FAPi, the first patient studies were realized for both compounds. Here, we present a new squaramide-containing compound targeting FAP, based on the AAZTA5 chelator 1,4-bis-(carboxylmethyl)-6-[bis-(carboxymethyl)-amino-6-pentanoic-acid]-perhydro-1,4-diazepine. For this molecule (AAZTA5.SA.FAPi), complexation with radionuclides such as gallium-68, scandium-44, and lutetium-177 was investigated, and the in vitro properties of the complexes were characterized and compared with those of DOTA.SA.FAPi. AAZTA5.SA.FAPi and its derivatives labelled with non-radioactive isotopes demonstrated similar excellent inhibitory potencies compared to the previously published SA.FAPi ligands, i.e., sub-nanomolar IC50 values for FAP and high selectivity indices over the serine proteases PREP and DPPs. Labeling with all three radiometals was easier and faster with AAZTA5.SA.FAPi compared to the corresponding DOTA analogue at ambient temperature. Especially, scandium-44 labeling with the AAZTA derivative resulted in higher specific activities. Both DOTA.SA.FAPi and AAZTA5.SA.FAPi showed sufficiently high stability in different media. Therefore, these FAP inhibitor agents could be promising for theranostic approaches targeting FAP.

Asymmetric Nucleophilic Allylation of α-Chloro Glycinate via Squaramide Anion-Abstraction Catalysis: SN1 or SN2 Mechanism, or Both?

The nucleophilic substitution mechanism of enantioselective allylation of α-chloro glycinate catalyzed by squaramide organocatalysts was studied using density functional theory. Based on a comprehensive study of SN1 and SN2 pathways of a catalyst-free reaction, we found that the catalytic reaction slightly favors the SN1 mechanism, instead of the previously proposed SN2 mechanism. Further investigation of different leaving groups and nucleophiles revealed that this is not limited to the present reaction, and the SN1 mechanism might have been generally overlooked. For the squaramide-catalyzed reactions, the SN1 mechanism was predicted to be preferred. However, the rate-determining step of the SN1 pathway has changed from the chloride-leaving step to the C-C bond-formation step. Therefore, a first-order dependence on both substrates was predicted, in agreement with the observed second-order kinetics. Intriguingly, the lowest-energy enantioselective transition states (TSs) originate from different pathways; R-inducing TS corresponds to the SN1 pathway, while S-inducing TS corresponds to SN2. The calculated enantiomeric excesses of two squaramide catalysts agree well with the experimental values. Given the ubiquity of nucleophilic substitution reactions in chemistry and biology, we believe that our finding will inspire more studies that will lead to an improved mechanistic understanding of important chemical reactions, and it may even lead to better catalysts.

Clinical optochin resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pseudopneumoniae strains in Tunisia.

INTRODUCTION: Streptococcus pneumoniae can be responsible for severe human infections. Optochin resistance has been a potential cause of misidentification of pneumococcus and other members of the mitis group. Hence, rapid and easy optochin resistant (Optr) S. pneumoniae identification is essential. METHODOLOGY: Atypical pneumococci were characterized using optochin susceptibility, bile solubility based on spectrophotometric reading, serotyping, pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), 16S rRNA sequencing and PCR-based assays targeting pneumococcal genes lytA, ply, pspA, cpsA, Spn9802 and Spn9828. RESULTS: Optical density values for the bile solubility test suggest the identification of four Optr S. pneumoniae and one Streptococcus pseudopneumoniae. All Optr pneumococci harbored cpsA, lytA, ply, Spn9802, Spn9828 and pspA genes. Only ply, spn9802 and Spn9828 genes were detected in S. pseudopneumoniae. The 16S rRNA sequencing differentiates between these two species. Optr S. pneumoniae strains belonged to different genotypes and serotypes (14, 19A, 3 and 9V). Three Optr S. pneumoniae isolates were typed as pspA family 2, while one belonged to pspA family 1. Sequencing of the atpA and atpC gene of the Optr variants revealed three mutations in the ATPase a-subunit (L99I, M23V and V52I) and one mutation in ATPase c-subunit (V48I). CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that bile OD-values provides an accurate, fast and easy method to discriminate between Optr S. pneumoniae and other Streptococcus mitis group. Moreover molecular techniques, confirming the bile test, can be used in order to prevent these atypical pneumococci and alert clinical microbiologists of the presence of these strains in the community.

Silver-Free Au(I) Catalysis Enabled by Bifunctional Urea- and Squaramide-Phosphine Ligands via H-Bonding.

A library of gold(I) chloride complexes with phosphine ligands incorporating pendant (thio)urea and squaramide H-bond donors was prepared with the aim of promoting chloride abstraction from Au(I) via H-bonding. In the absence of silver additives, complexes bearing squaramides and trifluoromethylated aromatic ureas displayed good catalytic activity in the cyclization of N-propargyl benzamides, as well as in a 1,6-enyne cycloisomerization, a tandem cyclization-indole addition reaction and the hydrohydrazination of phenylacetylene. Kinetic studies and DFT calculations indicate that the energetic span of the reaction is accounted by both the chloride abstraction step, facilitated by the bidentate H-bond donor via an associative mechanism, and the subsequent cyclization step.

Squaramide-Based Supramolecular Materials Drive HepG2 Spheroid Differentiation.

A major challenge in the use of HepG2 cell culture models for drug toxicity screening is their lack of maturity in 2D culture. 3D culture in Matrigel promotes the formation of spheroids that express liver-relevant markers, yet they still lack various primary hepatocyte functions. Therefore, alternative matrices where chemical composition and materials properties are controlled to steer maturation of HepG2 spheroids remain desired. Herein, a modular approach is taken based on a fully synthetic and minimalistic supramolecular matrix based on squaramide synthons outfitted with a cell-adhesive peptide, RGD for 3D HepG2 spheroid culture. Co-assemblies of RGD-functionalized squaramide-based and native monomers resulted in soft and self-recovering supramolecular hydrogels with a tunable RGD concentration. HepG2 spheroids are self-assembled and grown (≈150 µm) within the supramolecular hydrogels with high cell viability and differentiation over 21 days of culture. Importantly, significantly higher mRNA and protein expression levels of phase I and II metabolic enzymes, drug transporters, and liver markers are found for the squaramide hydrogels in comparison to Matrigel. Overall, the fully synthetic squaramide hydrogels are proven to be synthetically accessible and effective for HepG2 differentiation showcasing the potential of this supramolecular matrix to rival and replace naturally-derived materials classically used in high-throughput toxicity screening.