Gradients of neurotransmitter receptor expression in the macaque cortex.

Dynamics and functions of neural circuits depend on interactions mediated by receptors. Therefore, a comprehensive map of receptor organization across cortical regions is needed. In this study, we used in vitro receptor autoradiography to measure the density of 14 neurotransmitter receptor types in 109 areas of macaque cortex. We integrated the receptor data with anatomical, genetic and functional connectivity data into a common cortical space. We uncovered a principal gradient of receptor expression per neuron. This aligns with the cortical hierarchy from sensory cortex to higher cognitive areas. A second gradient, driven by serotonin 5-HT1A receptors, peaks in the anterior cingulate, default mode and salience networks. We found a similar pattern of 5-HT1A expression in the human brain. Thus, the macaque may be a promising translational model of serotonergic processing and disorders. The receptor gradients may enable rapid, reliable information processing in sensory cortical areas and slow, flexible integration in higher cognitive areas.

Drug Refraining and Seeking Potentiate Synapses on Distinct Populations of Accumbens Medium Spiny Neurons.

Cocaine-associated cues and contexts can precipitate drug seeking in humans and in experimental animals. Glutamatergic synapses in the core subcompartment of the nucleus accumbens (NAcore) undergo transient potentiation in response to presenting drug-associated cues. The NAcore contains two populations of medium spiny neurons (MSNs) that differentially express D1 or D2 dopamine receptors. By recording the ratio of AMPA and NMDA glutamate receptor currents (AMPA/NMDA ratio) from MSNs in NAcore tissue slices, we endeavored to understand which subpopulation of MSNs was undergoing transient potentiation. Transgenic female and male mice differentially expressing fluorescent reporters in D1 or D2 MSNs were withdrawn for 2-3 weeks after being trained to self-administer cocaine. In some mice, discrete cocaine-conditioned cues were isolated from the drug-associated context via extinction training, which causes rodents to refrain from drug seeking in the extinguished context. By measuring AMPA/NMDA ratios in the drug context with or without contextual or discrete cues, and with or without extinction training, we made the following three discoveries: (1) mice refraining from cocaine seeking in the extinguished context showed selective elevation in AMPA/NMDA ratios in D2 MSNs; (2) without extinction training, the drug-associated context selectively increased AMPA/NMDA ratios in D1 MSNs; (3) mice undergoing cue-induced cocaine seeking after extinction training in the drug-associated context showed AMPA/NMDA ratio increases in both D1 and D2 MSNs. These findings reveal that the NAcore codes drug seeking through transient potentiation of D1 MSNs, and that refraining from cocaine seeking in an extinguished context is coded through transient potentiation of D2 MSNs.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Relapse is a primary symptom of addiction that can involve competition between the desire to use drugs and the desire to refrain from using drugs. Drug-associated cues induce relapse, which is correlated with transiently potentiated glutamatergic synapses in the nucleus accumbens core. We determined which of two cell populations in the accumbens core, D1-expressing or D2-expressing neurons, undergo transient synaptic potentiation. After being trained to self-administer cocaine, mice underwent withdrawal, some with and others without extinguishing responding in the drug-associated context. Extinguished mice showed transient potentiation in D2-expressing neurons in the extinguished environment, and all mice engaged in context-induced or cue-induced drug seeking showed transient potentiation of D1-expressing neurons. A simple binary engram in accumbens for seeking drugs and refraining from drugs offers opportunities for cell-specific therapies.

The Leptin, Dopamine and Serotonin Receptors in Hypothalamic POMC-Neurons of Normal and Obese Rodents.

The pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)-expressing neurons of the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) are involved in the control of food intake and metabolic processes. It is assumed that, in addition to leptin, the activity of these neurons is regulated by serotonin and dopamine, but only subtype 2C serotonin receptors (5-HT2CR) was identified earlier on the POMC-neurons. The aim of this work was a comparative study of the localization and number of leptin receptors (LepR), types 1 and 2 dopamine receptors (D1R, D2R), 5-HT1BR and 5-HT2CR on the POMC-neurons and the expression of the genes encoding them in the ARC of the normal and diet-induced obese (DIO) rodents and the agouti mice (A y /a) with the melanocortin obesity. As shown by immunohistochemistry (IHC), all the studied receptors were located on the POMC-immunopositive neurons, and their IHC-content was in agreement with the expression of their genes. In DIO rats the number of D1R and D2R in the POMC-neurons and their expression in the ARC were reduced. In DIO mice the number of D1R and D2R did not change, while the number of LepR and 5-HT2CR was increased, although to a small extent. In the POMC-neurons of agouti mice the number of LepR, D2R, 5-HT1BR and 5-HT2CR was increased, and the D1R number was reduced. Thus, our data demonstrates for the first time the localization of different types of the serotonin and dopamine receptors on the POMC-neurons and a specific pattern of the changes of their number and expression in the DIO and melanocortin obesity.

Role for Rab10 in Methamphetamine-Induced Behavior.

Lipid rafts are specialized, cholesterol-rich membrane compartments that help to organize transmembrane signaling by restricting or promoting interactions with subsets of the cellular proteome. The hypothesis driving this study was that identifying proteins whose relative abundance in rafts is altered by the abused psychostimulant methamphetamine would contribute to fully describing the pathways involved in acute and chronic effects of the drug. Using a detergent-free method for preparing rafts from rat brain striatal membranes, we identified density gradient fractions enriched in the raft protein flotillin but deficient in calnexin and the transferrin receptor, markers of non-raft membranes. Dopamine D1- and D2-like receptor binding activity was highly enriched in the raft fractions, but pretreating rats with methamphetamine (2 mg/kg) once or repeatedly for 11 days did not alter the distribution of the receptors. LC-MS analysis of the protein composition of raft fractions from rats treated once with methamphetamine or saline identified methamphetamine-induced changes in the relative abundance of 23 raft proteins, including the monomeric GTP-binding protein Rab10, whose abundance in rafts was decreased 2.1-fold by acute methamphetamine treatment. Decreased raft localization was associated with a selective decrease in the abundance of Rab10 in a membrane fraction that includes synaptic vesicles and endosomes. Inhibiting Rab10 activity by pan-neuronal expression of a dominant-negative Rab10 mutant in Drosophila melanogaster decreased methamphetamine-induced activity and mortality and decreased caffeine-stimulated activity but not mortality, whereas inhibiting Rab10 activity selectively in cholinergic neurons had no effect. These results suggest that activation and redistribution of Rab10 is critical for some of the behavioral effects of psychostimulants.

Dopamine, vesicular transporters, and dopamine receptor expression in rat major salivary glands.

The localization of dopamine stores and the expression and localization of dopamine (DAT) and vesicular monoamine transporters (VMAT) type-1 and -2 and of dopamine D1-like and D2-like receptor subtypes were investigated in rat submandibular, sublingual, and parotid salivary glands by HPLC with electrochemical detection, as well as immunochemical and immunohistochemical techniques. Male Wistar rats of 2 mo of age were used. The highest dopamine levels were measured in the parotid gland, followed by the submandibular and sublingual glands. Western blot analysis revealed DAT, VMAT-1, VMAT-2, and dopamine receptors immunoreactivity in membrane preparations obtained from the three glands investigated. Immunostaining for dopamine and transporters was developed within striated ducts. Salivary glands processed for dopamine receptors immunohistochemistry developed an immunoreaction primarily in striated and excretory ducts. In the submandibular gland, acinar cells displayed strong immunoreactivity for the D2 receptor, while cells of the convoluted granular tubules were negative for both D1-like and D2-like receptors. Parotid glands acinar cells displayed the highest immunoreactivity for both D1 and D2 receptors compared with other salivary glands. The above localization of dopamine and dopaminergic markers investigated did not correspond closely with neuron-specific enolase (NSE) localization. This indicates that at least in part, catecholamine stores and dopaminergic markers are independent from glandular innervation. These findings suggest that rat major salivary glands express a dopaminergic system probably involved in salivary secretion. The stronger immunoreactivity for dopamine transporters and receptors in striated duct cells suggests that the dopaminergic system could regulate not only quality, but also volume and ionic concentration of saliva.

Pancreatic Endocrine Effects of Dopamine Receptors in Human Islet Cells.

OBJECTIVE: To date, there are no reports on the cellular localization of dopamine receptors in the human pancreas. In our study, we determined the localization and expression of 5 dopamine receptors (D(1), D(2), D(3), D(4), and D(5)) in normal human pancreas tissue. METHODS: Human nonpathological pancreas tissues were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, paraffin-embedded, and processed for immunohistochemical analysis to detect dopamine receptors in the human pancreas tissue by using double immunofluorescent labeling and confocal microscopy. RESULTS: We found that the D(1) receptor is present in ß cells; the D(2) receptor is expressed by α, δ, and pancreatic polypeptide cells; the D(4) receptor is expressed by ß and polypeptide cells; whereas the D(5) receptor is expressed only by δ cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our results identify the dopamine receptors (D(1)-D(5)) in normal pancreas tissue and provide a morphological basis for studying the pancreatic endocrine effects of dopamine and suggest a new target for the clinical treatment of diabetes.

Pharmacological and signalling properties of a D2-like dopamine receptor (Dop3) in Tribolium castaneum.

Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of vertebrates and invertebrates. Despite their evolutionary distance, striking parallels exist between deuterostomian and protostomian dopaminergic systems. In both, signalling is achieved via a complement of functionally distinct dopamine receptors. In this study, we investigated the sequence, pharmacology and tissue distribution of a D2-like dopamine receptor from the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (TricaDop3) and compared it with related G protein-coupled receptors in other invertebrate species. The TricaDop3 receptor-encoding cDNA shows considerable sequence similarity with members of the Dop3 receptor class. Real time qRT-PCR showed high expression in both the central brain and the optic lobes, consistent with the role of dopamine as neurotransmitter. Activation of TricaDop3 expressed in mammalian cells increased intracellular Ca(2+) signalling and decreased NKH-477 (a forskolin analogue)-stimulated cyclic AMP levels in a dose-dependent manner. We studied the pharmacological profile of the TricaDop3 receptor and demonstrated that the synthetic vertebrate dopamine receptor agonists, 2 - amino- 6,7 - dihydroxy - 1,2,3,4 - tetrahydronaphthalene hydrobromide (6,7-ADTN) and bromocriptine acted as agonists. Methysergide was the most potent of the antagonists tested and showed competitive inhibition in the presence of dopamine. This study offers important information on the Dop3 receptor from Tribolium castaneum that will facilitate functional analyses of dopamine receptors in insects and other invertebrates.

Variability in quantitative expression of receptors in nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenomas--an opportunity for targeted medical therapy.

OBJECTIVE: The surgical removal of a nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenoma (NFP-Mac) is often incomplete. The appropriate treatment of recurrent/residual NFP-Macs is not well established. Our objective was to detect and quantify receptors that may serve as potential targets for medical therapy for NFP-Macs with postsurgical residuals. METHODS: Several classes of pituitary receptors were analyzed by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction in 17 adult NFP-Mac patients who underwent surgery. RESULTS: The median age was 50 years, and 76% of patients were male. On magnetic resonance imaging, the mean NFP-Mac diameter was 3.3 ± 1.02 cm. Somatostatin receptor (SSTR) and dopamine receptor (DR) subtypes were found in almost all tumors. Based on previous studies, we postulated a cutoff of ≥ 2,000 receptor copies at which a response to therapy may occur. This cutoff was found in SSTR3 in 3 patients, SSTR2 in 2 patients, SSTR1 and SSTR5 in 1 patient each, DR(2_total) in 13 patients, DR(2_short) (considered the most responsive to dopamine agonists) in 10 patients, and DR(2_long), DR5, DR4, and DR1 in 7, 3, 2, and 1 patient, respectively. Tumor size, invasiveness score, immunochemistry, gender, age, clinical symptoms, and postoperative residual tumor growth did not correlate with the type or copy number of receptor mRNAs. CONCLUSION: NFP-Macs with significant postsurgical tumor residuals contain several DR and SSTR subtypes, some with high copy numbers. The receptor composition of NFP-Macs may guide future clinical research into targeted treatment strategies to reduce residual tumor volume. Such studies would determine the potential threshold of receptor levels for response to therapy for existing dopaminergic agonists and somatostatin analogs.

A neuregulin 1 transmembrane domain mutation causes imbalanced glutamatergic and dopaminergic receptor expression in mice.

The neuregulin 1 gene has repeatedly been identified as a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia, thus mice with genetic mutations in this gene offer a valuable tool for studying the role of neuregulin 1 in schizophrenia-related neurotransmission. In this study, slide-based receptor autoradiography was used to quantify glutamatergic N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA), dopaminergic D2, cannabinoid CB1 and acetylcholine M1/4 receptor levels in the brains of male heterozygous transmembrane domain neuregulin 1 mutant (Nrg1(+/-)) mice at two ages. Mutant mice expressed small but significant increases in NMDA receptor levels in the cingulate cortex (7%, p=0.044), sensory cortex (8%, p=0.024), and motor cortex (8%, p=0.047), effects that were independent of age. In the nucleus accumbens and thalamus Nrg1(+/-) mice exhibited age-dependent alterations in NMDA receptors. Nrg1(+/-) mice showed a statistically significant increase in NMDA receptor levels in the nucleus accumbens of 14-week-old Nrg1(+/-) mice compared to control littermates of the same age (12%, p=0.026), an effect that was not seen in 20-week-old mice. In contrast, NMDA receptor levels in the thalamus, while initially unchanged in 14-week-old mice, were then decreased in the 20-week-old Nrg1(+/-) mice compared to control littermates of the same age (14%, p=0.011). Nrg1(+/-) mutant mice expressed a significant reduction in D2 receptor levels (13-16%) in the striatum compared to controls, independent of age. While there was a borderline significant increase (6%, p=0.058) in cannabinoid CB1 receptor levels in the substantia nigra of Nrg1(+/-) mice compared to controls, CB1 as well as acetylcholine M1/4 receptors showed no change in Nrg1(+/-) mice in any other brain region examined. These data indicate that a Nrg1 transmembrane mutation produces selective imbalances in glutamatergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission, which are two key systems believed to contribute to schizophrenia pathogenesis. While the effects on these systems are subtle, they may underlie the susceptibility of these mutants to further impacts.

Detection of cell surface dopamine receptors.

Dopamine receptors are a class of metabotropic G protein-coupled receptors. Plasma membrane expression is a key determinant of receptor signaling, and one that is regulated both by extra and intracellular cues. Abnormal dopamine receptor signaling is implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, as well as drug abuse. Here, we describe in detail the application of two complementary applications of protein biotinylation and enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA) for detecting and quantifying levels of dopamine receptors expressed on the cell surface. In the biotinylation method, cell surface receptors are labeled with Sulfo-NHS-biotin. The charge on the sulfonyl facilitates water solubility of the reactive biotin compound and prevents its diffusion across the plasma membrane. In the ELISA method, surface labeling is achieved with antibodies specific to extracellular epitopes on the receptors, and by fixing the cells without detergent such that the plasma membrane remains intact.

Methods for the study of dopamine receptors within lipid rafts of kidney cells.

There is increasing evidence that G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling is regulated in lipid raft microdomains. GPCRs and GPCR-signaling molecules, including G proteins and protein kinases, have been reported to compartmentalize in these microdomains. Dopamine D(1)-like receptors (D(1)R and D(5)R) belong to a family of GPCRs that are important in the regulation of renal function. These receptors are not only localized and regulated in caveolae that contains caveolin-1 but are also distributed in non--caveolar lipid rafts which do not contain caveolin-1. This chapter describes detergent- and non-detergent-based methods to obtain lipid raft fractions from renal proximal tubule cells.

Detection of receptor heteromers involving dopamine receptors by the sequential BRET-FRET technology.

Until very recently, dopamine receptors, like other G-protein-coupled receptors, were believed to function as individual units on the cell surface. Now it has been described by several groups including ours that dopamine receptors not only function as homomers but also form heteromers with other receptors at the membrane level. Bioluminescence and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (BRET and FRET) based techniques have been very useful to determine the interaction between two receptors, but to demonstrate the existence of higher-order complexes involving more than two molecules requires more sophisticated techniques. Combining BRET and FRET in the Sequential BRET-FRET (SRET) technique permits heteromers formed by three different proteins to be identified. In SRET experiments, the oxidation of a Renilla Luciferase substrate triggers acceptor excitation by BRET and subsequent energy transfer to a FRET acceptor. Using this methodology here we describe the heteromerization between adenosine A(2A), dopamine D(2), and cannabinoids CB(1) receptors in living cells.

Automatic semi-quantification of [123I]FP-CIT SPECT scans in healthy volunteers using BasGan version 2: results from the ENC-DAT database.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to assess striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) availability in a large group of normal subjects. METHODS: The study included 122 healthy subjects, aged 18-83 years, recruited in the multicentre 'ENC-DAT' study (promoted by the European Association of Nuclear Medicine). Brain single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) was acquired by means of dual-head cameras 3 h after [(123)I]FP-CIT administration. Specific to nondisplaceable binding ratios (SBRs) in the basal ganglia were computed using the 'BasGan' software, allowing automatic value extraction with partial volume effect correction. Multicentre camera inhomogeneity was taken into account by calibrating values on basal ganglia phantom data. SBR in each caudate nucleus (C) and putamen (P) were the dependent variables in a repeated measures general linear model analysis; age, gender, handedness and body mass index (BMI) were the independent variables. RESULTS: SBR values in C and P were significantly associated with age (mean rate decrease with age: 0.0306 per year, or 0.57 % of the general mean; p < 0.0001) and gender (women had higher values; p = 0.015), while no significant effect was found for handedness and BMI. A significant interaction was found between age and region (p < 0.0001) as the age-related decline was 0.028 for left C, 0.026 for right C and 0.034 for both P. P/C ratio analysis confirmed that age-related SBR decrease was stronger in P than in C (p < 0.0001). No significant effect was found for season or time of the day when the scan was acquired by analysing the residual of SBR values in C and P, after subtraction of age and gender effects. CONCLUSION: This study confirms the dependency of DAT on ageing and highlights the gender differences in a large sample of healthy subjects, while it does not support the dependency of DAT on BMI, handedness, circadian rhythm or season.

Imaging as tool to investigate psychoses and antipsychotics.

The results of imaging studies have played an important role in the formulation of hypotheses regarding the etiology of psychosis and schizophrenia, as well as in our understanding of the mechanisms of action of antipsychotics. Since this volume is primarily directed to molecular aspects of psychosis and antipsychotics, only the results of molecular imaging techniques addressing these topics will be discussed here.One of the most consistent findings of molecular imaging studies in schizophrenia is an increased uptake of DOPA in the striatum, which may be interpreted as an increased synthesis of L-DOPA. Also, several studies reported an increased release of dopamine induced by amphetamine in schizophrenia patients. These findings played an important role in reformulating the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. To study the roles of the neurotransmitters γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate in schizophrenia, SPECT as well as MR spectroscopy have been used. The results of preliminary SPECT studies are consistent with the hypothesis of NMDA receptor dysfunction in schizophrenia. Regarding the GABA deficit hypothesis of schizophrenia, imaging results are inconsistent. No changes in serotonin transporters were demonstrated in imaging studies in schizophrenia, but studies of several serotonin receptors showed conflicting results. The lack of selective radiotracers for muscarinic receptors may have hampered examination of this system in schizophrenia as well as its role in the induction of side effects of antipsychotics. Interestingly, preliminary molecular imaging studies on the cannabinoid-1 receptor and on neuroinflammatory processes in schizophrenia have recently been published. Finally, a substantial number of PET/SPECT studies have examined the occupancy of receptors by antipsychotics and an increasing number of studies is now focusing on the effects of these drugs using techniques like spectroscopy and pharmacological MRI.

Role of dopaminergic receptors in the human dura mater in the pathogenesis of headache.

AIMS: We hypothesize that dopaminergic receptors of dura mater may play a possible role in headache. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The dopaminergic receptors of cranial dura mater in man were studied by examining several dural zones (vascular, peri-vascular, inter-vascular) in different brain regions (basal, calvarial, tentorial, occipital, frontal, parietal, temporal). RESULTS: Our results demonstrate that dopaminergic receptors are present in human cranial dura mater and that these receptors show a specific morphological location. There are more dural dopaminergic receptors in the basal region than in the calvarial one. Moreover, these receptors are more abundant in the vascular and perivascular dural zone than in the intervascular one. CONCLUSIONS: The location of dopaminergic receptors in the dura mater may represent an important factor in the pathogenesis of headache. Further studies will be necessary in order to determine the role of dopaminergic system in this disease.

Effects of trimethyltin on hippocampal dopaminergic markers and cognitive behaviour.

The triorganotin compound trimethyltin (TMT) is a highly toxic molecule which has a great impact on human health. The aim of this study was to investigate the specific alteration of dopamine receptors and transporters in the hippocampus of TMT-treated rats. The TMT-treated group showed impaired spatial reference memory in a Morris water maze task compared to the control group, whereas memory consolidation tested 24 hours after the last training session was preserved. In the open field, TMT-treated rats showed a decrease in time spent in rearing episodes reflecting a lower interest to explore a novel environment. In the hippocampal area of the TMT-treated group, we observed a reduction in neuronal viability accompanied by a significant decrease in the expression of the dopamine receptors (D1 and D2), and dopamine transporters (DAT, VMAT1 and VMAT2). A less pronounced reduction was observed for D3 and D5 while D4 did not change. These data were confirmed by RT-PCR analysis. The present study on TMT-induced neurodegeneration highlights the link between hippocampal asset of dopamine receptors and transporters and the impaired performance of rats in a spatial reference memory task.

Maternal high-fat intake alters presynaptic regulation of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and increases motivation for fat rewards in the offspring.

High caloric intake during early postnatal development can have long term consequences for the offspring. We previously reported that the adult offspring of dams fed a high-fat diet during the last week of gestation and throughout lactation display blunted locomotor response to amphetamine (AMP) and reduced sensitization to the drug compared to offspring of control diet dams. Here, we report that the subsensitivity of high-fat offspring to AMP's locomotor stimulant action reflects, at least in part, altered regulation of nucleus accumbens (NAc) dopamine (DA) transmission. When compared to controls, the DA response of high-fat animals to AMP, as measured with microdialysis, was attenuated in the NAc, but unaffected in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). A relatively higher activity of NAc synaptosomal DA transporter sites without changes in vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) uptake capacity was also observed in high-fat offspring. Moreover, ventral tegmental area (VTA) D(2) receptor mRNA levels were decreased in high-fat offspring, suggesting a reduction in DA release-regulating D(2) autoreceptors in terminal regions such as the NAc. The magnitude of locomotor response to D(2/3) receptor activation (with quinpirole) was greater in high-fat than in control animals despite having comparable postsynaptic D(2) mRNA levels in the NAc. Finally, while operant responding for a sugar-enriched food reward did not differ between diet groups, high-fat offspring displayed increased operant responding for a fat-enriched reward compared to controls. These findings add to mounting evidence that early life exposure to elevated dietary maternal fat can lead to long lasting changes in DA-mediated behavioral responses to stimulant drugs and fat-enriched foods.

Imaging dopamine receptors in humans with [11C]-(+)-PHNO: dissection of D3 signal and anatomy.

[(11)C]-(+)-PHNO is a D3 preferring PET radioligand which has recently opened the possibility of imaging D3 receptors in the human brain in vivo. This imaging tool allows characterisation of the distribution of D3 receptors in vivo and further investigation of their functional role. The specific [(11)C]-(+)-PHNO signal is a mixture of D3 and D2 components with the relative magnitude of each component determined by the regional receptor densities. An accurate and reproducible delineation of regions of interest (ROI) is therefore important for optimal analysis of human PET data. We present a set of anatomical guidelines for the delineation of D3 relevant ROIs including substantia nigra, hypothalamus, ventral pallidum/substantia innominata, ventral striatum, globus pallidus and thalamus. Delineation of these structures using this approach allowed for high intra- and inter-operator reproducibility. Subsequently we used a selective D3 antagonist to dissect the total [(11)C]-(+)-PHNO signal in each region into its D3 and D2 components and estimated the regional fraction of the D3 signal (f(PHNO)(D3)). In descending order of magnitude the following results for the f(PHNO)(D3) were obtained: hypothalamus=100%, substantia nigra=100%, ventral pallidum/substantia innominata=75%, globus pallidus=65%, thalamus=43%, ventral striatum=26% and precommissural-ventral putamen=6%. An automated approach for the delineation of these anatomical regions of interest was also developed and investigated in terms of its reproducibility and accuracy.

Dopamine receptor subtypes in the native human heart.

The present study first time detected D1-D5 dopamine receptor subtypes in the native human heart simultaneously, found presence of D1, D2, D4, and D5 in cardiac tissues, and revealed distribution features of dopamine receptor subtypes in the epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. Samples from four native hearts coming from young brain-dead donors, which for technical reason were not used for transplants, were studied. Dopamine receptors were revealed by immunochemistry technique and immunoblot analysis. Morphometrical quantification of the density of each receptor subtype was performed by an image analyzer. Our results demonstrate that only four subtypes of dopamine receptors can be found in cardiac tissues: D1, D2, D4, and D5. These dopamine receptors have been detected in endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium. D1 receptors were stored primarily in the epicardial layer. Dopamine receptors are distributed in the wall of both atria and ventricles, and its transmural gradient can be described in the wall of the human heart. Sections of atria and ventricles exposed to antidopamine receptor antibodies showed fluorescent-positive reaction in the epicardium, myocardium and endocardium. D4 receptor immune reactivity was remarkably less intense than D2 receptor immune reactivity. All the subtypes of dopamine receptors are in close relationships with all cardiac structures. Our findings provide a favorable basis for researching the role of dopamine receptors in controlling functions of the human heart and in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases.