Comparison of capsule and posterior lumbar interbody fusion in cauda equina syndrome with retention: a 24-month follow-up study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cauda equina syndrome with retention (CESR) is a severe lumbar condition characterized by painless urine retention due to cauda equina nerve injury. The standard treatment, posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF), often yields suboptimal results. This study aims to compare the clinical safety and efficacy of a novel technique, capsule lumbar interbody fusion (CLIF), with PLIF in CESR patients, hypothesizing that CLIF can enhance neurological recovery by reducing nerve tension. METHODS: A single-center, retrospective study was conducted on 83 patients with CESR due to lumbar disc herniation, who underwent either PLIF (n = 44) or CLIF (n = 39). Patients were assessed preoperatively and at 3, 12, and 24 months postoperatively using the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire Short Form (ICI-Q-SF), and Rintala score. Urodynamic studies and nerve tension measurements were also performed. Statistical analysis included t tests, Mann-Whitney U tests, and Spearman's correlation. RESULTS: Both groups showed significant postoperative improvements, but the CLIF group had superior outcomes. At 12 months, the CLIF group had lower VAS scores (1.15 ± 0.84 vs. 1.68 ± 0.60, p = 0.001) and ODI scores (23.31 ± 7.51 vs. 28.30 ± 8.26, p = 0.005). At 24 months, the CLIF group continued to show better results with ODI scores (15.97 ± 6.43 vs. 22.11 ± 6.41, p < 0.001) and higher ODI recovery rates (60.41 ± 17.6% vs. 44.71 ± 18.99%, p < 0.001). The CLIF group also had better ICI-Q-SF scores (2.13 ± 1.23 vs. 3.02 ± 1.45, p = 0.004) and Rintala scores (17.97 ± 1.43 vs. 16.59 ± 1.54, p < 0.001). Lower postoperative nerve tension in the CLIF group correlated with these improved outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: CLIF demonstrated superior efficacy over PLIF in treating CESR, with significant improvements in pain relief, functional recovery, and bladder and bowel function. This study highlights the potential of CLIF as a more effective surgical option for CESR, emphasizing its importance in improving patient outcomes and reducing the burden of CESR on patients and society.

Cauda equina syndrome with beta thalassemia: a case report.

INTRODUCTION: Cauda equina syndrome (CES) related to beta thalassemia with extramedullary hematopoiesis is a rarely reported and challenging clinical presentation. A thorough literature review revealed only a limited number of documented cases, each demonstrating a variety of treatment modalities with divergent outcomes. CASE PRESENTATION: In this case, a 29-year-old male with beta thalassemia, undergoing frequent blood transfusions, and with a history of splenectomy, presented with 2 days of worsening in his lower back pain, extending to both lower limbs, numbness, and urinary incontinence. Following the ASIA ISNCSCI scoring system for physical assessment, there was a significant decrease in anal tone and perianal sensation, suggesting possible sacral nerve roots involvement, but no other upper or lower extremities sensory or motor deficits were detected. Provided with the patient history of frequent blood transfusion and Thalassemia for which hematology referral was promoted. Spinal MRI revealed extramedullary hematopoiesis, disc protrusion, and cauda equina compression. DISCUSSION: Spine surgery, including decompression and laminectomy, resulted in improved back pain and lower limb symptoms during the one-year follow-up. However, persistent sensory impairment and neurogenic bladder necessitated ongoing urological management. The absence of clear guidelines for the management of such cases underscores the need for further data collection and comprehensive outcome reviews.

Simultaneous L1-2 Bulged Disc and Mobile Spinal Schwannoma Causing Cauda Equina Syndrome: A Rare Case Report.

BACKGROUND Aside from the rarity of mobile spinal schwannomas, the coexistence of these tumors with herniated intervertebral disc is also scarce. Furthermore, cauda equina syndrome (CES), as a manifestation of intraspinal schwannomas has been reported rarely. Described here is a case of simultaneous lumbar disc bulge and mobile spinal schwannoma presented with intermittent symptoms of CES. CASE REPORT A 62-year-old man presented with severe but intermittent leg pain for 2 weeks, which later progressed to an episode of lower extremity weakness and difficulty in urination. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed an intraspinal tumor that moved in position relative to the L1-2 disc bulge on scans 6 h apart, with associated spontaneous regression in symptoms. The tumor was found to be a mobile spinal schwannoma, originated from a nerve root. A standard microdissection technique was used to remove the tumor through a spinous process-sparing unilateral approach, with complete laminectomy of L1. Use of intraoperative ultrasound facilitated the accurate tumor localization. Postoperatively, the patient no longer had symptoms. CONCLUSIONS This report presents a combination of a common spinal pathology, intervertebral disc herniation, alongside a rare condition, mobile spinal schwannoma, whose uncommon clinical manifestations, such as CES can cause irreversible neurological deficits. Surgeons need to remain vigilant of potential atypical scenarios when treating patients. Surgical treatment challenges regarding the mobility of tumors, such as accurate localization, should be addressed using intraoperative imaging to avoid wrong-level surgery. To mitigate the irreversible neurological complications, patients should receive comprehensive information for alarming signs of CES.

Cauda equina syndrome with surgical intervention in pregnancy during the periviable period.

INTRODUCTION: Cauda equina syndrome (CES) following lumbar disc herniation is exceedingly rare in pregnancy and there is limited literature outlining management of CES in pregnancy. There is further limited data addressing the management of periviable pregnancies complicated by CES. CASE PRESENTATION: A 38-year-old female at 22 weeks gestation presented with worsening lower back pain radiating to the right posterior lower extremity. She was initially managed with conservative therapy, but re-presented with worsening neurologic symptoms, including fasciculations and perineal numbness. Magnetic resonance imaging showed a large herniated disc at L4-5, and given concern for CES, she underwent emergent decompression surgery, which was complicated by a superficial wound dehiscence. She ultimately carried her pregnancy to term and had a cesarean delivery. The patient's residual neurologic symptoms continued to improve with physical therapy throughout the postpartum period. DISCUSSION: Cauda equina syndrome is a rare spinal condition with potentially devastating outcomes if not managed promptly. Diagnosis and management of CES in pregnancy is the same as in non-pregnant patients, however, standardization of patient positioning for surgery, surgical approach, anesthetic use, and fetal considerations is lacking. A multidisciplinary approach is critical, especially at periviable gestational ages of pregnancy. Our case and review of the literature demonstrates that patients in the second trimester can be managed surgically with prone positioning, intermittent fetal monitoring, and continued management of the pregnancy remains unchanged. Given the rarity of these cases, there is a need for a consensus on management and continued care in pregnant patients with CES.

Cauda Equina Syndrome: Cost Burden After Spinal Decompression.

STUDY DESIGN: Observational cohort study. OBJECTIVE: Cauda equina syndrome (CES) is a rare neurologic condition with potentially devastating consequences. The objective of this study was to compare the 2-year postoperative cost-associated treatments after posterior spinal decompression between patients with and without CES. METHODS: By analyzing a commercial insurance claims database, patients who underwent posterior spinal decompression with a concurrent diagnosis of lumbar spinal stenosis, radiculopathy, or disk herniation in 2017 were identified and included in the study. The primary outcome was the cost of payments for identified treatments in the 2-year period after surgery. Treatments included were (1) physical therapy (PT), (2) pain medication, (3) injections, (4) bladder management, (5) bowel management, (6) sexual dysfunction treatment, and (7) psychological treatment. RESULTS: In total, 3,140 patients (age, 55.3 ± 12.0 years; male, 62.2%) were included in the study. The average total cost of treatments identified was $2,996 ± 6,368 per patient. The overall cost of identified procedures was $2,969 ± 6,356 in non-CES patients, compared with $4,535 ± 6,898 in patients with CES ( P = 0.079). Among identified treatments, only PT and bladder management costs were significantly higher for patients with CES (PT: +115%, P < 0.001; bladder management: +697%, P < 0.001). The difference in overall cost was significant between patients (non-CES: $1,824 ± 3,667; CES: $3,022 ± 4,679; P = 0.020) in the first year. No difference was found in the second year. DISCUSSION: A short-term difference was observed in costs occurring in the first postoperative year. Cost of treatments was similar between patients apart from PT and bladder management.

Post-operative epidural haematoma as complication of overconsumption of dried fruit in lumbar spinal surgery: a case report and review of the literature.

PURPOSE: Mebos, a traditional South Africa confection consisting of dried, pulped, and sugared apricots, is rich in fibre and vitamins, but also contains salicylic acid, flavonoids, and citric acid. We report a case of postoperative surgical site bleeding in a healthy patient who consumed approximately 2 kg of mebos per day prior to his elective spinal surgery. METHODS: The clinical course of a previously healthy 54-year-old male patient with cauda equina syndrome secondary to lumbar spinal stenosis who underwent surgical intervention with subsequent bleeding into the surgical site is discussed. The cause was investigated through biochemical analysis, thromboelastometry (ROTEM®) and mass and absorption spectrometry were applied to assess flavonoid, citric acid, and salicylic acid content. RESULTS: ROTEM® revealed an abnormal clotting profile with an increased clot forming time, suggesting intrinsic coagulopathy. Mass and absorption spectrometry revealed a high total flavonoid content as well as citric acid concentration in the mebos. Salicylic acid was at detection limits of the instrument. CONCLUSION: Results highlighted the effect of flavonoids and citric acid and therefore explain the abnormal clotting profile in this patient. Inhibition of coagulation prior to elective surgery is a known contraindication and may pose great risks in spinal surgery. In the present report, we demonstrated an association between inhibition of coagulation and an excess of the flavonoids content and citric acid concentration in mebos consumed in the days prior to elective spinal surgery.

Double Level Non-Contiguous Traumatic Lumbar Disc Herniation Presenting With Cauda Equina Syndrome: A Case Report and Literature Review.

CASE: A 52-year-old man presented with cauda equina syndrome after a motorcycle accident. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed traumatic disc herniation, at L2-L3 and L5-S1 levels without bony injury. He was managed successfully by wide laminectomy and microdiscectomy at both levels with complete neurological recovery at 2-month follow-up. CONCLUSION: With a reported incidence of 0.4%, traumatic disc herniation in the lumbar region is an uncommon occurrence that may resemble a spinal epidural hematoma in acute trauma. Although MRI may not reliably differentiate spinal epidural hematoma from disc herniation, urgent surgical intervention may be required in profound neurological deficits.

Association between chiropractic spinal manipulation and cauda equina syndrome in adults with low back pain: Retrospective cohort study of US academic health centers.

BACKGROUND: Cauda equina syndrome (CES) is a lumbosacral surgical emergency that has been associated with chiropractic spinal manipulation (CSM) in case reports. However, identifying if there is a potential causal effect is complicated by the heightened incidence of CES among those with low back pain (LBP). The study hypothesis was that there would be no increase in the risk of CES in adults with LBP following CSM compared to a propensity-matched cohort following physical therapy (PT) evaluation without spinal manipulation over a three-month follow-up period. METHODS: A query of a United States network (TriNetX, Inc.) was conducted, searching health records of more than 107 million patients attending academic health centers, yielding data ranging from 20 years prior to the search date (July 30, 2023). Patients aged 18 or older with LBP were included, excluding those with pre-existing CES, incontinence, or serious pathology that may cause CES. Patients were divided into two cohorts: (1) LBP patients receiving CSM or (2) LBP patients receiving PT evaluation without spinal manipulation. Propensity score matching controlled for confounding variables associated with CES. RESULTS: 67,220 patients per cohort (mean age 51 years) remained after propensity matching. CES incidence was 0.07% (95% confidence intervals [CI]: 0.05-0.09%) in the CSM cohort compared to 0.11% (95% CI: 0.09-0.14%) in the PT evaluation cohort, yielding a risk ratio and 95% CI of 0.60 (0.42-0.86; p = .0052). Both cohorts showed a higher rate of CES during the first two weeks of follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that CSM is not a risk factor for CES. Considering prior epidemiologic evidence, patients with LBP may have an elevated risk of CES independent of treatment. These findings warrant further corroboration. In the meantime, clinicians should be vigilant to identify LBP patients with CES and promptly refer them for surgical evaluation.

How to assess the long-term recovery outcomes of patients with cauda equina syndrome before surgery: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Factors influencing recovery after decompression surgery for cauda equina syndrome (CES) are not completely identified. The authors aimed to investigate the most valuable predictors (MVPs) of poor postoperative recovery (PPR) in patients with CES and construct a nomogram for discerning those who will experience PPR. METHODS: Three hundred fifty-six patients with CES secondary to lumbar degenerative diseases treated at Xijing Hospital were randomly divided into training ( N =238) and validation ( N =118) cohorts at a 2:1 ratio. Moreover, 92 patients from the 970 th Hospital composed the testing cohort. Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator regression (LASSO) was used for selecting MVPs. The nomogram was developed by integrating coefficients of MVPs in the logistic regression, and its discrimination, calibration, and clinical utility were validated in all three cohorts. RESULTS: After 3 to 5 years of follow-up, the residual rates of bladder dysfunction, bowel dysfunction, sexual dysfunction, and saddle anesthesia were 41.9, 44.1, 63.7, and 29.0%, respectively. MVPs included stress urinary incontinence, overactive bladder, low stream, difficult defecation, fecal incontinence, and saddle anesthesia in order. The discriminatory ability of the nomogram was up to 0.896, 0.919, and 0.848 in the training, validation, and testing cohorts, respectively. Besides, the nomogram showed good calibration and clinical utility in all cohorts. Furthermore, the optimal cutoff value of the nomogram score for distinguishing those who will experience PPR was 148.02, above which postoperative outcomes tend to be poor. CONCLUSION: The first pretreatment nomogram for discerning CES patients who will experience PPR was developed and validated, which will aid clinicians in clinical decision-making.

Anterior approach for a stab wound with penetrating rebar injury causing incomplete cauda equina syndrome in lumbosacral spine lesion: a case report and literature review.

PURPOSE: To report a unique case of incomplete CES following a rebar penetrating injury in perineal region with retro-pulsed fragment, which was treated with anterior approach and discuss suitable surgical approach. METHODS: Incomplete cauda equina syndrome caused by non-missile penetrating injury is extremely rare. A 26-year-old male patient presented incomplete cauda equina syndrome due to a penetrating rebar wound from his perineal region to the lumbosacral spine. Computed tomography demonstrated a bony fragment broken from S1 body compressing into the spinal canal. RESULTS: By anterior approach, we performed partial corpectomy of L5, decompression by retrieving the bony fragment and L5-S1 interbody fusion. The patient had a significant recovery, and no clinical complication was found after over 2-year follow-up. CONCLUSION: It is challenging to determine the optimal strategy of surgical treatment for penetrating spinal injuries with retained foreign bodies, here we suggest an anterior approach situation that has the advantage of being able to effectively perform decompression and prevent iatrogenic damages of thecal sac and nerve rootlets.

Chronic cauda equina syndrome decompression surgery recovery is very "bad"? Based on patient self-assessment.

BACKGROUND: Symptoms of cauda equina syndrome (CES) secondary to degenerative lumbar spine diseases are sometimes mild and tend to be ignored by patients, resulting in delayed treatment. In addition, the long-term efficacy of surgery is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To determine the predictive factors of CES and post-operative recovery in patients with symptoms lasting > 3 months. METHODS: From January 2011 to December 2020, data of 45 patients with CES secondary to lumbar disk herniation/lumbar spinal stenosis were collected from a single center. The patients had bladder, bowel or sexual dysfunction and decreased perineal sensation that lasted for > 3 months. A 2-year post-operative follow-up was conducted to evaluate recovery outcomes, which were measured by validated self-assessment questionnaires conducted by telephone and online. RESULTS: Overall, 45 CES patients (57.8% female; mean age, 56 years) were included. The duration of pre-operative CES symptoms was 79.6 weeks (range, 13-730 weeks). The incidence of saddle anesthesia before decompression was 71.1% (n = 32), bladder dysfunction 84.4% (n = 38), bowel dysfunction 62.2% (n = 28) and sexual dysfunction 64.4% (n = 29). The overall recovery rate of CES after a 2-year follow-up was 64.4%. The rates of the residual symptoms at the last follow-up were as follows: saddle anesthesia 22.2%, bladder dysfunction 33.3%, bowel dysfunction 24.4% and sexual dysfunction 48.9%. Pre-operative saddle anesthesia, overactive bladder and sexual dysfunction were risk factors for poor prognosis after decompression. CONCLUSION: CES patients with symptoms lasting > 3 months may recover after surgery. Sexual dysfunction has a high residual rate and should not be ignored during diagnosis and treatment.

Tarlov cyst with self-healing cauda equina syndrome following combined spinal-epidural anesthesia: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Cauda Equina Syndrome (CES) after Combined Spinal-Epidural Anesthesia (CSEA) is a rare disease that most of the time need surgery to relieve spinal cord compression. CASE PRESENTATION: A 34-year-old male patient underwent a procedure for prolapse and hemorrhoids (PPH) under CSEA. Anesthesia and surgery were uneventful. However, the patient gradually experienced urinary retention, lower abdomen and back pain, changes in bowel habits and neurological dysfunction of the lower limbs when the catheter was removed. It was later determined that the patient had Tarlov cyst at the left S1 level in the sacral canal. Finally, the patient completely recovered 20 days after drug conservative therapy onset. CONCLUSION: This case suggests that CES might occur even after ordinary CSEA. The risk factors are drug neurotoxicity to ropivacaine and Tarlov cyst, which helped to accumulate ropivacaine. The development of ultrasound-guided CSEA and an ultrasound atlas of the spinal canal are required.

Triangular Osteosynthesis as a Treatment of Lumbopelvic Dissociation with Acute Cauda Equina Syndrome in an 11-Year-Old Patient.

This case offers a safe and effective method for treating lumbopelvic dissociation in a pediatric patient with cauda equina syndrome using a triangular osteosynthesis construct. After a high-speed accident, an 11-year-old girl was admitted to the hospital with bowel and bladder incontinence and bilateral lower extremity weakness. The orthopaedic trauma and spine teams elected for surgical treatment with a triangular osteosynthesis construct, a procedure usually reserved for adults. The surgery was uncomplicated, and the patient experienced complete resolution of her preoperative symptoms. She is doing well over 1-year postoperatively, with full neurologic recovery, maintained reduction, bony healing, and subsequent implant removal. To our knowledge, this is the youngest reported case of lumbopelvic dissociation treated in this manner and represents a viable treatment option.

High-Riding Conus Medullaris Syndrome: A Case Report and Literature Review-Its Comparison with Cauda Equina Syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: Conus medullaris syndrome (CMS) is a distinctive spinal cord injury (SCI), which presents with varying degrees of upper motor neuron signs (UMNS) and lower motor neuron signs (LMNS). Herein, we present a case with a burst fracture injury at the proximal Conus Medullaris (CM). CASE PRESENTATION: A 48-year-old Taiwanese male presenting with lower back pain and paraparesis was having difficulty standing independently after a traumatic fall. An Imaging survey showed an incomplete D burst fracture of the T12 vertebra. Posterior decompression surgery was subsequently performed. However, spasticity and back pain persisted for four months after surgical intervention. Follow-up imaging with single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and a whole body bone scan both showed an increased uptake in the T12 vertebra. CONCLUSION: The high-riding injury site for CMS is related to a more exclusive clinical representation of UMNS. Our case's persistent UMNS and scintigraphy findings during follow-up showcase the prolonged recovery period of a UMN injury. In conclusion, our study provides a different perspective on approaching follow-up for CM injuries, namely using scientigraphy techniques to confirm localization of persistent injury during the course of post-operative rehabilitation. Furthermore, we also offered a new technique for analyzing the location of lumbosacral injuries, and that is to measure the location of the injury relative to the tip of the CM. This, along with clinical neurological examination, assesses the extent to which the UMN is involved in patients with CMS, and is possibly a notable predictive tool for clinicians for the regeneration time frame and functional outcome of patients with lumbosacral injuries in the future.

A comparison of the safety and efficacy of minimally invasive surgery versus open surgery in treating cauda equina syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: To compare the safety and efficacy of minimally invasive surgery (MIS) and open surgery (OS) in treating cauda equina syndrome (CES). METHODS: A systematic literature search was conducted, searching relevant databases for studies investigating MIS and/or OS in treating CES. Pooled outcomes and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were meta-analyzed via random-effects models. RESULTS: Ten studies were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled mean operation times were shorter for MIS (75.4 min; 95 %CI: 40.8, 110.0) than OS (155.1 min; 121.3, 188.9). Similarly, mean hospital stay was shorter for MIS (4.08 days; 2.77, 5.39 vs. 8.85 days; 6.56, 11.13). Mean blood loss was smaller for MIS (71.7 mL; 0, 154.5 vs. 366.5; 119.1, 614.0). Mean post-op lumbar/back visual analogue scale (VAS) score was lower for MIS (3.65; 2.75, 4.56 vs. 5.80; 4.55, 7.05). Mean post-op leg VAS score was 1.27 (0.41, 21.4) for MIS and 1.29 (0.47, 2.12) for OS. Mean complete bladder recovery rate was 81.0% (55.0%, 94.0%) for MIS and 75.0% (44.0%, 92.0%) for OS. Mean complete motor recovery rate was larger for MIS (70.0%; 48.0, 85.0 vs. 42.0%; 34.0, 51.0). Mean percentages of "excellent" patient outcomes were equal for MIS (64.0%; 48.0%, 77.0%) and OS (64.0%; 22.0%, 92.0%). CONCLUSION: MIS for CES was associated with reduced operative time, length of stay, and blood loss, compared to OS. MIS was also associated with better post-operative lumbar/back and leg VAS scores and complete motor and bladder recovery rates. MIS and OS produced an equal average percentage of "excellent" patient outcomes.

Intraoperative Ultrasound and Findings of Lumbar Intradural Disk Herniation Causing Cauda Equina Syndrome.

Intradural lumbar disk herniation (ILDH) is a rare variant and accounts for 0.33%-1.5% of lumbar disk herniations. Although clues exist on preoperative imaging, they remain subtle and most cases of ILDH are diagnosed intraoperatively. Intraoperative ultrasound is a useful adjunct in diagnosing and managing ILDH. We present a case to demonstrate the features of an intradural herniated disk on ultrasound imaging and highlight the utility of intraoperative ultrasonography in establishing diagnosis, guiding dural opening, and confirming adequate nerve root decompression following diskectomy.

Cauda equina syndrome.

Aims: Patients with cauda equina syndrome (CES) require emergency imaging and surgical decompression. The severity and type of symptoms may influence the timing of imaging and surgery, and help predict the patient's prognosis. Categories of CES attempt to group patients for management and prognostication purposes. We aimed in this study to assess the inter-rater reliability of dividing patients with CES into categories to assess whether they can be reliably applied in clinical practice and in research. Methods: A literature review was undertaken to identify published descriptions of categories of CES. A total of 100 real anonymized clinical vignettes of patients diagnosed with CES from the Understanding Cauda Equina Syndrome (UCES) study were reviewed by consultant spinal surgeons, neurosurgical registrars, and medical students. All were provided with published category definitions and asked to decide whether each patient had 'suspected CES'; 'early CES'; 'incomplete CES'; or 'CES with urinary retention'. Inter-rater agreement was assessed for all categories, for all raters, and for each group of raters using Fleiss's kappa. Results: Each of the 100 participants were rated by four medical students, five neurosurgical registrars, and four consultant spinal surgeons. No groups achieved reasonable inter-rater agreement for any of the categories. CES with retention versus all other categories had the highest inter-rater agreement (kappa 0.34 (95% confidence interval 0.27 to 0.31); minimal agreement). There was no improvement in inter-rater agreement with clinical experience. Across all categories, registrars agreed with each other most often (kappa 0.41), followed by medical students (kappa 0.39). Consultant spinal surgeons had the lowest inter-rater agreement (kappa 0.17). Conclusion: Inter-rater agreement for categorizing CES is low among clinicians who regularly manage these patients. CES categories should be used with caution in clinical practice and research studies, as groups may be heterogenous and not comparable.

Cauda Equina Syndrome in a Military Personnel: A Case Report.

Cauda equina syndrome is a rare but severe neuro-spinal disorder commonly caused due to lumbar disc herniation, which occurs mostly at lower levels of L4-S1. We report a case of 38-year-old male soldier deployed on a foreign mission who presented to a level 1 military hospital 4 months back with complaints of decreased movement of bilateral lower limbs and severe low back pain radiating to the right lower limb for 2 hours. He was referred to a higher centre and diagnosed with cauda equina syndrome due to massive disc herniation at levels L2-L3. He underwent laminotomy and discectomy of the extruded intervertebral disc after 48 hours. On subsequent follow-up, his bladder and lower limbs sensations were normal however, he had bowel incontinence, hypotonia, hyporeflexia, and no significant improvement in power. Hence, early diagnosis, referral, and timely intervention affect the outcomes in a cauda equina syndrome patient. Keywords: case reports; cauda equina syndrome; disc herniation; low back pain; military personnel.

Definition and surgical timing in cauda equina syndrome-An updated systematic review.

STUDY DESIGN: Systematic review. OBJECTIVES: To conduct a systematic review identifying existing definitions of cauda equina syndrome (CES) and time to surgery in the literature for patients with CES. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA statement. Ovid Medline, Embase, CINAHL Plus, and trial registries were searched from October 1st, 2016, to 30th December 2022, and combined with articles identified from a previous systematic review by the same authors (studies published 1990-2016). RESULTS: A total of 110 studies (52,008 patients) were included. Of these only 16 (14.5%) used established definitions in defining CES, including Fraser criteria (n = 6), British Association of Spine Surgeons (BASS) (n = 5), Gleave and MacFarlane (n = 2), and other (n = 3). Most reported symptoms were urinary dysfunction (n = 44, 40%%), altered sensation in the perianal region (n = 28, 25.5%) and bowel dysfunction (n = 20, 18.2%). Sixty-eight (61.8%) studies included details on time to surgery. There was an increase in percentage of studies defining CES published in the last 5 years compared to ones from 1990-2016 (58.6% vs 77.5.%, P = .045). CONCLUSIONS: Despite Fraser recommendations, substantial heterogeneity exists in reporting of CES definitions, and a start point for time to surgery, with most authors using self-defined criteria. A consensus is required to define CES and time to surgery, to allow consistency in reporting and study analysis.