Antiviral effects of umbelliferone against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus).

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) poses a significant threat to global aquaculture, prompting ongoing efforts to identify potential drug candidates for disease prevention. Coumarin derivatives have recently emerged as a promising class of compounds effective against rhabdoviruses, which severely impact the aquaculture industry. In this study, we assessed the anti-VHSV activity of umbelliferone (7-hydroxycoumarin) in fathead minnow (FHM) cells and olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. Umbelliferone exhibited an EC50 of 100 µg/mL by reducing cytopathic effect, with a maximum cytotoxicity of 30.9 % at 750 µg/mL. Mechanistic analyses via a time-course plaque reduction assay revealed that direct incubation with the virus for 1 h resulted in 97.0 ± 1.8 % plaque reduction, showing excellent direct virucidal activity. Pretreatment for 4 h resulted in a 33.5 ± 7.8 % plaque reduction, which increased with longer incubation times. Cotreatment led to a 33.5 ± 2.9 % plaque reduction, suggesting interference with viral binding, whereas postinfection treatment proved less effective. Umbelliferone was prophylactically administered to the olive flounder through short-term (3 days) and long-term (14 days) medicated feeding, followed by a 4-day postinfection period. Short-term administration at 100 mg/kg body weight (bw)/day resulted in the highest relative percent survival (RPS) of 56 %, whereas long-term administration achieved a maximum RPS of 44 % at 30 mg/kg bw/day. Umbelliferone administration delayed mortality at these doses. Additionally, umbelliferone significantly inhibited the expression of the VHSV N gene during viral challenge, with no observed toxic effects in fish up to an administration dose of 30 mg/kg bw/day for 28 days. Our findings suggest that the protective mechanism of short-term administration of 100 mg umbelliferone against VHSV infection may involve the overexpression of TLR2, MDA5, STAT1, and NF-κB at 24 h postinfection (hpi). IL-8 and IFN II expression was upregulated, whereas TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IFN I expression was suppressed at 24 hpi. The upregulation of ISG15 at 48 hpi may contribute to the inhibition of VHSV replication, whereas the downregulation of Caspase 3 expression at 96 hpi suggests a possible inhibition of virus-induced apoptosis at later infection stages. Overall, umbelliferone exhibited anti-VHSV activity through multiple mechanisms, with the added advantage of convenient administration via medicated feed.

The extracellular matrix protein EFEMP2 is involved in the response to VHSV infection in the olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus.

The EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular matrix protein 2 (EFEMP2) is involved in connective tissue development, elastic fiber formation, and tumor growth. In this study, we characterized the cDNA of EFEMP2 (PoEFEMP2), a member of the fibulin family of ECM proteins, in the olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. The coding region of PoEFEMP2 encodes a protein that contains six calcium-binding EGF-like (EGF-CA) domains and four complement Clr-like EGF-like (cEGF) domains. PoEFEMP2 shows 67.51-96.77 % similarities to orthologs in a variety of fish species. PoEFEMP2 mRNA was detected in all tissues examined; the highest levels of PoEFEMP2 mRNA expression were observed in the heart, testis, ovary and muscle. The PoEFEMP2 mRNA level increases during early development. In addition, the PoEFEMP2 mRNA level increased at 3 h post-infection (hpi) and decreased from 6 to 48 hpi in flounder Hirame natural embryo (HINAE) cells infected with viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV). Disruption of PoEFEMP2 using the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated-9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system resulted in a significant upregulation of VHSV G mRNA levels and immune-related genes expression in knockout cells. These findings implicate PoEFEMP2 in antiviral responses in P. olivaceus.

Protective efficacy and immune responses of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) immunized with an inactivated vaccine against the viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus genotype IVa.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) poses a significant threat to the aquaculture industry, prompting the need for effective preventive measures. Here, we developed an inactivated VHSV and revealed the molecular mechanisms underlying the host's protective response against VHSV. The vaccine was created by treating VHSV with 0.05 % formalin at 16 °C for 48 h, which was determined to be the most effective inactivation method. Compared with nonvaccinated fish, vaccinated fish exhibited a remarkable increase in survival rate (99 %) and elevated levels of serum neutralizing antibodies, indicating strong immunization. To investigate the gene changes induced by vaccination, RNA sequencing was performed on spleen samples from control and vaccinated fish 14 days after vaccination. The analysis revealed 893 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), with notable up-regulation of immune-related genes such as annexin A1a, coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor homolog, V-set domain-containing T-cell activation inhibitor 1-like, and heat shock protein 90 alpha class A member 1 tandem duplicate 2, indicating a vigorous innate immune response. Furthermore, KEGG enrichment analysis highlighted significant enrichment of DEGs in processes related to antigen processing and presentation, necroptosis, and viral carcinogenesis. GO enrichment analysis further revealed enrichment of DEGs related to the regulation of type I interferon (IFN) production, type I IFN production, and negative regulation of viral processes. Moreover, protein-protein interaction network analysis identified central hub genes, including IRF3 and HSP90AA1.2, suggesting their crucial roles in coordinating the immune response elicited by the vaccine. These findings not only confirm the effectiveness of our vaccine formulation but also offer valuable insights into the underlying immunological mechanisms, which can be valuable for future vaccine development and disease management in the aquaculture industry.

Functional characterization of irf3 against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus infection using a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated zebrafish knockout model.

Interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) are transcription factors involved in immune responses, such as pathogen response regulation, immune cell growth, and differentiation. IRFs are necessary for the synthesis of type I interferons through a signaling cascade when pathogen recognition receptors identify viral DNA or RNA. We discovered that irf3 is expressed in the early embryonic stages and in all immune organs of adult zebrafish. We demonstrated the antiviral immune mechanism of Irf3 against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout zebrafish (irf3-KO). In this study, we used a truncated Irf3 protein, encoded by irf3 with a 10 bp deletion, for further investigation. Upon VHSV injection, irf3-KO zebrafish showed dose-dependent high and early mortality compared with zebrafish with the wild-type Irf3 protein (WT), confirming the antiviral activity of Irf3. Based on the results of expression analysis of downstream genes upon VHSV challenge, we inferred that Irf3 deficiency substantially affects the expression of ifnphi1 and ifnphi2. However, after 5 days post infection (dpi), ifnphi3 expression was not significantly altered in irf3-KO compared to that in WT, and irf7 transcription showed a considerable increase in irf3-KO after 5 dpi, indicating irf7's control over ifnphi3 expression. The significantly reduced expression of isg15, viperin, mxa, and mxb at 3 dpi also supported the effect of Irf3 deficiency on the antiviral activity in the early stage of infection. The higher mortality in irf3-KO zebrafish than in WT might be due to an increased inflammation and tissue damage that occurs in irf3-KO because of delayed immune response. Our results suggest that Irf3 plays a role in antiviral immunity of zebrafish by modulating critical immune signaling molecules and regulating antiviral immune genes.

A single amino acid variation of NV protein of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus increases protein stability and decreases immune gene expression.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) causes severe mortality among more than 90 fish species. The 11 kb viral genome encodes six proteins including nonvirion protein (NV). In previous study, we reported that NV gene variations of VHSV decrease cellular energy metabolism. Among several NV mutant proteins, NV-S56L showed the highest cellular energy deprivation. Based on this finding, we further examined a molecular mechanism of one amino acid (S56L) change on differential cellular dysregulation. In the fish cells, the NV-S56L protein showed an increased level of cellular expression than normal and other mutant NV proteins without change of mRNA expression. Using cycloheximide treatment for exclude de novo NV protein expression, NV-S56L had an extensive half-life of intracellular protein. The proteasome inhibitor, MG-132, treatment recovered the all NV protein levels. The ubiquitination of NV was increased in the treatment of MG132 via inhibition of the ubiquitin/proteasome system process. Finally, increased protein stability of NV-S56L led to downregulation of NF-κB response immune gene expression. These results indicate that the prolonged protein stabilization of NV protein variant (NV-S56L) increases its pathological duration and might eventually lead to high virulence activity in the host fish cell.

Kinetics of CD4-1+ lymphocytes in brown trout after exposure to viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus.

T-helper cells express CD4 as a co-receptor that binds to major histocompatibility complex class II to synchronize the immune response against upcoming threats via mediating several cytokines. We have previously reported the presence of CD4 homologues in brown trout. The study of cellular immune responses in brown trout is limited by the availability of specific antibodies. We here describe the generation of a polyclonal antibody against CD4-1 that allows for the investigation of CD4+ cells. We used this novel tool to study CD4+ cells in different tissues during viral haemorrhagic septicaemia infection (VHSV) using flow cytometric technique. Flow cytometric analyses revealed an enhanced level of surface CD4-1 expression in the infected group in major lymphoid organs and in the intestine. These results suggest an important role for the T-helper cells within the immune response against viruses, comparable to the immune response in higher vertebrates.

RNA-seq transcriptome analysis in flounder cells to compare innate immune responses to low- and high-virulence viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is a rhabdovirus that causes high mortality in cultured flounder. Viral growth and virulence rely on the ability to inhibit the cellular innate immune response. In this study, we investigated differences in the modulation of innate immune responses of HINAE flounder cells infected with low- and high-virulence VHSV strains at a multiplicity of infection of 1 for 12 h and 24 h and performed RNA sequencing (RNA-seq)-based transcriptome analysis. A total of 193 and 170 innate immune response genes were differentially expressed by the two VHSV strains at 12 and 24 h postinfection (hpi), respectively. Of these, 73 and 77 genes showed more than a twofold change in their expression at 12 and 24 hpi, respectively. Of the genes with more than twofold changes, 22 and 11 genes showed high-virulence VHSV specificity at 12 and 24 hpi, respectively. In particular, IL-16 levels were more than two time higher and CCL20a.3, CCR6b, CCL36.1, Casp8L2, CCR7, and Trim46 levels were more than two times lower in high-virulence-VHSV-infected cells than in low-virulence-VHSV-infected cells at both 12 and 24 hpi. Quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) confirmed the changes in expression of the ten mRNAs with the most significantly altered expression. This is the first study describing the genome-wide analysis of the innate immune response in VHSV-infected flounder cells, and we have identified innate immune response genes that are specific to a high-virulence VHSV strain. The data from this study can contribute to a greater understanding of the molecular basis of VHSV virulence in flounder.

Transcriptome analysis based on RNA-seq of common innate immune responses of flounder cells to IHNV, VHSV, and HIRRV.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) and hirame rhabdovirus (HIRRV) belong to the genus Novirhabdovirus and are the causative agents of a serious disease in cultured flounder. However, infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), a prototype of the genus Novirhabdovirus, does not cause disease in flounder. To determine whether IHNV growth is restricted in flounder cells, we compared the growth of IHNV with that of VHSV and HIRRV in hirame natural embryo (HINAE) cells infected with novirhabdoviruses at 1 multiplicity of infection. Unexpectedly, we found that IHNV grew as well as VHSV and HIRRV. For successful growth in host cells, viruses modulate innate immune responses exerted by virus-infected cells. Our results suggest that IHNV, like VHSV and HIRRV, has evolved the ability to overcome the innate immune response of flounder cells. To determine the innate immune response genes of virus-infected HINAE cells which are commonly modulated by the three novirhabdoviruses, we infected HINAE cells with novirhabdoviruses at multiplicity of infection (MOI) 1 and performed an RNA sequencing-based transcriptome analysis at 24 h post-infection. We discovered ~12,500 unigenes altered by novirhabdovirus infection and found that many of these were involved in multiple cellular pathways. After novirhabdovirus infection, 170 genes involved in the innate immune response were differentially expressed compared to uninfected cells. Among them, 9 genes changed expression by more than 2-fold and were commonly modulated by all three novirhabdoviruses. Interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8), C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 1 (CXCR1), Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adapter protein (TIRAP), cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H), C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 11, duplicate 5 (CXCL11.5), and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) were up-regulated, whereas C-C motif chemokine receptor 6a (CCR6a), interleukin-12a (IL12a), and Toll-like receptor 1 (TLR1) were down-regulated. These genes have been reported to be involved in antiviral responses and, thus, their modulation may be critical for the growth of novirhabdovirus in flounder cells. This is the first report to identify innate immune response genes in flounder that are commonly modulated by IHNV, VHSV, and HIRRV. These data will provide new insights into how novirhabdoviruses survive the innate immune response of flounder cells.

Potentiality to natural immunization inducement against VHS in olive flounder by live VHSV immersion vaccination at temperature controlled culture condition.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is the etiological agent of viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS), one of the most severe viral diseases affecting cultured olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) in Far East Asia. VHS occurs during the winter or spring season when the water temperature is low (9-15 °C). In our previous study found that VHSV infection had controlled by using water temperature (above 17 °C). By using water temperature, we demonstrated optimal live VHSV immersion vaccine treatment concentration, also live VHSV immersion vaccine treatment method. We confirmed that the effective VHSV immersion treatment was 105.5 TCID50/mL at 17 °C. It was no need pretreatment before live VHSV immersion vaccination. The VHSV titer of vaccinated fish organs was under the estimated limit (<1.8 log TCID50/mL) within 3 days in 105.5 TCID50/mL live VHSV immersion at 17 °C. High survival rates were observed in live VHSV immersion with 105.5 and 107.5 TCID50/mL at 17 °C and then infected VHSV at 10 °C. VHSV specific antibody was not detected from in the surviving flounder under VHSV infection after immersion treatment with live VHSV. In addition, the potentiality of natural immunization against VHS in olive flounder was suggested by live VHSV immersion vaccine at temperature controlled fish culture condition.

Involvement of CD4-1 T cells in the cellular immune response of olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) and nervous necrosis virus (NNV) infection.

The occurrence of CD4 helper T cells has already been established for a number of teleost species, though, it has not been possible to analyze these responses at a cellular level due to a large lack of appropriate monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). In the present study, we produced a mAb against olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) CD4-1 lymphocyte to investigate the functional activity of the cells to improve our understanding of the T cell response in this species. This mAb is specifically able to detect CD4-1 lymphocytes in olive flounder proved by immunofluorescence staining and RT-PCR analysis. In flow cytometry analysis, the number of CD4-1-positive lymphocytes was observed to gradually increase from 3 days post infection (dpi) and then reach peak at 7 dpi against two viruses challenge. As a conclusion, both the basic properties of CD4-1 T cells and its response to viral infections in olive flounder are very similar to the helper T cells in terrestrial animals.

Functional nutrition modulates the early immune response against viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) in rainbow trout.

Although viruses represent a major threat for cultured fish worldwide, the commercialization of vaccines capable of providing effective and long-lasting protection is still lacking for most of these viral diseases. In this situation, the use of supplemented diets could be a suitable strategy to increase the immune status of the fish and reduce the impact of viral pathogens. Among possible immunostimulants that could be included in these functional feeds, some studies have previously shown that certain ß-glucans can significantly increase certain immune parameters of fish and reduce the impact of viral diseases. However, the mechanisms through which ß-glucans exert their activity have not been fully elucidated yet. In the current study, we have studied the immune response of different tissues to viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) in rainbow trout fed with a non-supplemented control diet as well as in fish fed a commercial functional aquafeed (Protec™, Skretting) containing ß-glucans, vitamin C, vitamin E and zinc. For this, after 30 days of feeding the fish with one of the two diets, they were subsequently infected with VHSV by bath or mock-infected. After 2 or 6 days post-infection, fish were sacrificed and the levels of transcription of different immune genes such as IgM, IgT, IgD, Mx, interferon γ (IFN γ) and perforin studied in different tissues (kidney, gut and gills). Additionally, the levels of natural IgMs in serum were also determined. Our results demonstrate that fish fed the functional diet were capable of mounting an increased IgM, IgT, IgD and Mx transcriptional response to the virus. Additionally, these fish also showed increased levels of natural IgMs in serum. These results reveal a previously undescribed effect of functional diets on fish Ig production and point to Protec™ as an adequate diet to be incorporated in holistic programs aimed at mitigating the effect of viral diseases.

Juvenile olive flounder immersed in live VHSV at 17 °C and 20 °C shows resistance against VHSV infection at 10 °C.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) causes serious economic loss in olive flounder aquaculture industry in Korea. Water temperature is known to play a critical role in VHS disease outbreak. Here, we assessed the potential efficacy of VHSV immersion treatment in relation to resistance conferred at differential water temperatures in olive flounder. VHSV acquired resistance was compared between formalin-killed VHSV immersion treatment and live VHSV immersion treatment at three different water temperatures viz., 10 °C, 17 °C, and 20 °C. At 10 °C, cumulative mortality was around 80% in live VHSV immersed group while 30% cumulative mortality was observed in formalin-killed VHSV treated group. After 4 weeks, surviving olive flounder at 17 °C and 20 °C were challenged with VHSV at 10 °C following which the VHS outbreaks took place at host susceptible water temperature. For the pre-treated flounder at 17 °C, survival rates were 80% and 30% after challenge at 10 °C in live VHSV immersed group and formalin-killed VHSV immersed group, respectively. Whereas, the pre-treated flounder at 20 °C showed survival rate of 75% and 20% after challenge at 10 °C in live VHSV immersed group and formalin-killed VHSV immersed group, respectively. Our results propose the fact that live VHSV immersion using non-susceptible water temperature has the potential to protect olive flounder against VHSV infection. Moreover, the protective efficacy of live immersion treatment in a non-excited immune state without the use of an adjuvant combined with water temperature adjustment was investigated for the first time at 17 °C. Further studies should be targeted to explore the host-associated immune factors responsible for the protective effect and acquired resistance in olive flounder after live VHSV immersion treatment.

Effect of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of either Mx1 or ISG15 gene in EPC cells on resistance against VHSV infection.

Although the type I interferon-mediated increase of Mx1 and ISG15 gene expression in Epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells has been reported, the antiviral role of Mx1 and ISG15 in EPC cells has not been investigated. In this study, to know the anti-viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) role of Mx1 and ISG15 of EPC cells, either Mx1 or ISG15 gene was knocked-out using a CRISPR/Cas9 system, and the progression of cytopathic effects (CPE) and viral growth were analyzed. Mx1 gene and ISG15 gene knockout EPC cells were successfully produced via CRISPR/Cas9 coupled with a single-cell cloning. Through the sequence analysis, one clone showing two heterozygous indel patterns in Mx1 gene and a clone showing three heterozygous indel patterns in ISG15 gene were selected for further analyses. Mx1 knockout EPC cells did not show any differences in VHSV-mediated CPE progression, even when pre-treated with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), compared to control EPC cells. These results suggest that Mx1 in EPC cells may be unfunctional to cytoplasmic RNA viruses. In contrast to Mx1, ISG15 knockout cells showed clearly hampered anti-VHSV activity even when pre-treated with poly I:C, indicating that ISG15 plays an important role in type I interferon-mediated anti-viral activity in EPC cells, which allowed VHSV to replicate more efficiently in ISG15 knockout cells than Mx1 knockout and control cells.

Molecular characterization and expression analysis of rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii) viperin, and its ability to enervate RNA virus transcription and replication in vitro.

Viperin, also known as RSAD2 (Radical S-adenosyl methionine domain containing 2), is an interferon-induced endoplasmic reticulum-associated antiviral protein. Previous studies have shown that viperin levels are elevated in the presence of viral RNA, but it has rarely been characterized in marine organisms. This study was designed to functionally characterize rockfish viperin (SsVip), to examine the effects of different immune stimulants on its expression, and to determine its subcellular localization. SsVip is a 349 amino acid protein with a predicted molecular mass of 40.24 kDa. It contains an S-adenosyl l-methionine binding conserved domain with a CNYKCGFC sequence. Unchallenged tissue expression analysis using quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) revealed SsVip expression to be the highest in the blood, followed by the spleen. When challenged with poly I:C, SsVip was upregulated by approximately 60-fold in the blood after 24 h, and approximately 50-fold in the spleen after 12 h. Notable upregulation was detected throughout the poly I:C challenge experiment in both tissues. Significant expression of SsVip was detected in the blood following Streptococcus iniae and lipopolysaccharide challenge, and viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) gene transcription was significantly downregulated during SsVip overexpression. Furthermore, cell viability assay and virus titer quantification with the presence of SsVip revealed a significant reduction in virus replication. As with previously identified viperin counterparts, SsVip was localized in the endoplasmic reticulum. Our findings show that SsVip is an antiviral protein crucial to innate immune defense.

Rainbow Trout Red Blood Cells Exposed to Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus Up-Regulate Antigen-Processing Mechanisms and MHC I&II, CD86, and CD83 Antigen-presenting Cell Markers.

Nucleated teleost red blood cells (RBCs) are known to express molecules from the major histocompatibility complex and peptide-generating processes such as autophagy and proteasomes, but the role of RBCs in antigen presentation of viruses have not been studied yet. In this study, RBCs exposed ex vivo to viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) were evaluated by means of transcriptomic and proteomic approaches. Genes and proteins related to antigen presentation molecules, proteasome degradation, and autophagy were up-regulated. VHSV induced accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in ex vivo VHSV-exposed RBCs and showed at the same time a decrease of proteasome activity. Furthermore, induction of autophagy was detected by evaluating LC3 protein levels. Sequestosome-1/p62 underwent degradation early after VHSV exposure, and it may be a link between ubiquitination and autophagy activation. Inhibition of autophagosome degradation with niclosamide resulted in intracellular detection of N protein of VHSV (NVHSV) and p62 accumulation. In addition, antigen presentation cell markers, such as major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I & II, CD83, and CD86, increased at the transcriptional and translational level in rainbow trout RBCs exposed to VHSV. In summary, we show that nucleated rainbow trout RBCs can degrade VHSV while displaying an antigen-presenting cell (APC)-like profile.

Effect of CXCL12-expressing viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus replicon particles on leukocytes migration and vaccine efficacy in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus).

Viral replicon particles are single-cycle viruses defective for function(s) needed for viral replication, which allow them to be recognized as a safer form for the vaccination of animals compared to attenuated live viruses. However, deletion of genes that are critical for the induction of protective immunity can diminish the vaccine potential of viral replicon particles. Therefore, the manipulation of viral replicon particles to produce a molecular adjuvant can be a way to increase immunogenicity of vaccines based on viral replicon particles. Chemokines are a class of chemotactic cytokines that control the migration of diverse cells of vertebrates. CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) binds to a receptor CXCR4, and CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling plays an important role in the migration of hematopoietic cells during embryogenesis and the attraction of leukocytes. In the present study, to evaluate the possible use of CXCL12 as a molecular adjuvant for an rVHSV-ΔG vaccine and to know differences between CXCL12a and CXCL12b in the adjuvant ability, we rescued VHSV replicon particles that are expressing olive flounder CXCL12a, CXCL12b, or eGFP (rVHSV-ΔG-CXCL12a, rVHSV-ΔG-CXCL12b, or rVHSV-ΔG-eGFP), and compared the ability to attract olive flounder leucocytes and to induce protection against a VHSV challenge. In the leukocytes migration assay, supernatants collected from cells infected with rVHSV-ΔG-CXCL12a and rVHSV-ΔG-CXCL12b showed significantly higher ability to attract olive flounder leukocytes than the supernatant of cells infected with rVHSV-ΔG-eGFP. Moreover, the significantly higher number of leukocytes were attracted to rVHSV-CXCL12a supernatant compared to rVHSV-CXCL12b supernatant, suggesting that CXCL12a would be more appropriate for the induction of immunity than CXCL12b in olive flounder. In the immunization experiment, olive flounder immunized with rVHSV-ΔG-CXCL12a showed significantly higher survival rate than fish immunized with rVHSV-ΔG-CXCL12b or rVHSV-ΔG-eGFP. In addition, fish immunized with rVHSV-ΔG-CXCL12a showed the highest serum neutralization activity. These results suggest the availability of CXCL12a for a molecular adjuvant of vaccines based on VHSV replicon particles.

Production of a monoclonal antibody against of muskellunge (Esox masquinongy) IgM heavy chain and its use in development of an indirect ELISA for titrating circulating antibodies against VHSV-IVB.

This study reports the development of a monoclonal antibody (designated 3B10) against the muskellunge (Esox masquinongy) IgM. The 3B10 monoclonal antibody (mAb) belongs to the IgG3 kappa isotype. Western blotting demonstrated that 3B10 mAb reacted primarily to muskellunge IgM heavy chain. 3B10 also reacted strongly with the IgM heavy chain of other esocids, including the northern pike (Esox lucius), tiger muskellunge (E. masquinongy x E. lucius), and, to a much lesser extent, the chain pickerel (E. niger). The 3B10 mAb did not bind to IgM from 10 other fish species resident in the Great Lakes basin. Using the 3B10 mAb, it was possible to determine the muskellunge Ig ability to bind to antigens. Using trinitrophenyl hapten conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (TNP-KLH) as the eliciting antigen, muskellunge Ig subclasses exhibited a range of affinities with log aK values 5.56-6.25 that is considered intermediate compared to other fish species. 3B10 mAb was used to develop and evaluate an indirect ELISA for the detection and quantitation of circulating antibodies against the viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus genotype IVb (VHSV-IVb). Using the newly optimized assay, anti-VHSV-IVb antibodies were detected in sera of VHSV-IVb vaccinated muskellunge as well as from those of wild muskellunge sampled from an endemic waterbody. In addition to its use in immunoassays, the developed 3B10 mAb will enable future investigation aiming at deciphering immune mechanism of this important fish species to pathogens.

Effect of miR-155 as a molecular adjuvant of DNA vaccine against VHSV in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus).

Rhabdoviral G protein-based DNA vaccines have been recognized as a useful way to protect cultured fish from rhabdoviral diseases. In Korea, viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) genotype IVa has been the primary culprit of high mortalities of cultured olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). In this study, we inserted a miR-155-expressing cassette into the VHSV's G protein-based DNA vaccine, and analyzed the effects of miR-155 on the antiviral activity and on the vaccine efficacy in olive flounder. Olive flounder fingerlings were intramuscularly (i.m.) immunized with 10 µg/fish (1st experiment) or 1 µg/fish (2nd experiment) of DNA vaccine plasmids. However, there were no significant differences in mortalities and serum neutralization titers between fish immunized with 1 µg and 10 µg plasmids/fish, suggesting that i.m. injection with 1 µg plasmids/fish would be enough to induce effective adaptive immune responses in olive flounder fingerlings. In survival rates, as fish immunized with just G protein expressing plasmids showed no or too low mortalities, the adjuvant effect of miR-155 was not discernible. Also, in the serum neutralization activities, although G gene or G gene plus miR-155 expressing DNA vaccines induced significantly higher activities than control vaccines (PBS and vacant vector), no significant differences were found between G gene alone and G gene plus miR-155 expressing DNA vaccines. In the serum virucidal activity, fish immunized with G gene plus miR-155 expressing DNA vaccine showed significantly higher activity against hirame rhabdovirus (HIRRV) at 3 days post-immunization (d.p.i.) compared to other groups, suggesting that miR-155 produced from the vector can enhance innate immune responses in olive flounder. The significantly enhanced serum virucidal activities against VHSV especially at 28 d.p.i. in the groups immunized with G gene alone and G gene plus miR-155 expressing DNA vaccines reflect the increased antibodies against G protein, which could activate the classical complement pathway and subsequent viral inactivation. As the available information on the DNA vaccines in olive flounder is not sufficient, more diverse researches on the protective efficacy of DNA vaccines are needed to make more practical use of DNA vaccines in olive flounder farms.

Generation of VHSV replicon particles carrying transmembrane and C-terminal cytoplasmic region-deleted G gene (rVHSV-GΔTM) and comparison of vaccine efficacy with G gene-deleted VHSV (rVHSV-ΔG).

Vaccines based on viral replicon particles would be advantageous to induce immune responses compared to inactivated viruses in that they can infect host cells (only once) and can produce viral proteins in the infected cells like live viruses. Furthermore, as viral replicon particles are replication-defective, they are safer than live attenuated viruses. Previously, we had rescued viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) replicon particles lacking full ORF of G gene (rVHSV-ΔG). In the present study, to enhance the immunogenicity of VHSV replicon particles, we newly generated another form of VHSV replicon particles that can produce the transmembrane and C-terminal cytoplasmic region-deleted G protein in host cells (rVHSV-GΔTM), and compared the protective efficacy of rVHSV-GΔTM with that of rVHSV-ΔG through immunization of olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). In addition, we evaluated the safety of rVHSV-GΔTM by the analysis of effects on wild-type VHSV replication. In the vaccine experiment, olive flounder immunized with rVHSV-GΔTM showed significantly higher titers of serum neutralization activity than fish immunized with rVHSV-ΔG suggesting that the G protein that is not only spiked on the viral envelop but also secreted extracellularly can contribute to the enhancement of adaptive humoral immunity. Moreover, fish immunized with rVHSV-GΔTM showed higher survival rates than fish immunized with rVHSV-ΔG, suggesting that the amount of G protein provided to hosts is an important factor for the enhancement of vaccine efficacy against VHSV disease. In a safety aspect, rVHSV-GΔTM could not replicate in infected cells, and significantly inhibited the replication of wild-type VHSV when co-infected, suggesting that rVHSV-GΔTM would not worsen disease progression caused by wild-type VHSV infection.

Immune response modulation upon sequential heterogeneous co-infection with Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae and VHSV in brown trout (Salmo trutta).

Simultaneous and sequential infections often occur in wild and farming environments. Despite growing awareness, co-infection studies are still very limited, mainly to a few well-established human models. European salmonids are susceptible to both Proliferative Kidney Disease (PKD), an endemic emergent disease caused by the myxozoan parasite Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae, and Viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (VHS), an OIE notifiable listed disease caused by the Piscine Novirhabdovirus. No information is available as to how their immune system reacts when interacting with heterogeneous infections. A chronic (PKD) + acute (VHS) sequential co-infection model was established to assess if the responses elicited in co-infected fish are modulated, when compared to fish with single infections. Macro- and microscopic lesions were assessed after the challenge, and infection status confirmed by RT-qPCR analysis, enabling the identification of singly-infected and co-infected fish. A typical histophlogosis associated with histozoic extrasporogonic T. bryosalmonae was detected together with acute inflammation, haemorrhaging and necrosis due to the viral infection. The host immune response was measured in terms of key marker genes expression in kidney tissues. During T. bryosalmonae/VHSV-Ia co-infection, modulation of pro-inflammatory and antimicrobial peptide genes was strongly influenced by the viral infection, with a protracted inflammatory status, perhaps representing a negative side effect in these fish. Earlier activation of the cellular and humoral responses was detected in co-infected fish, with a more pronounced upregulation of Th1 and antiviral marker genes. These results reveal that some brown trout immune responses are enhanced or prolonged during PKD/VHS co-infection, relative to single infection.