Cardioprotective effects of hydrogen sulfide in attenuating myocardial ischemia­reperfusion injury (Review).

Ischemic heart disease is one of the major causes of cardiovascular­related mortality worldwide. Myocardial ischemia can be attenuated by reperfusion that restores the blood supply. However, injuries occur during blood flow restoration that induce cardiac dysfunction, which is known as myocardial ischemia­reperfusion injury (MIRI). Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), the third discovered endogenous gasotransmitter in mammals (after NO and CO), participates in various pathophysiological processes. Previous in vitro and in vivo research have revealed the protective role of H2S in the cardiovascular system that render it useful in the protection of the myocardium against MIRI. The cardioprotective effects of H2S in attenuating MIRI are summarized in the present review.

Exogenous Hydrogen Sulfide Plays an Important Role by Regulating Autophagy in Diabetic-Related Diseases.

Autophagy is a vital cell mechanism which plays an important role in many physiological processes including clearing long-lived, accumulated and misfolded proteins, removing damaged organelles and regulating growth and aging. Autophagy also participates in a variety of biological functions, such as development, cell differentiation, resistance to pathogens and nutritional hunger. Recently, autophagy has been reported to be involved in diabetes, but the mechanism is not fully understood. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a colorless, water-soluble, flammable gas with the typical odor of rotten eggs, which has been known as a highly toxic gas for many years. However, it has been reported recently that H2S, together with nitric oxide and carbon monoxide, is an important gas signal transduction molecule. H2S has been reported to play a protective role in many diabetes-related diseases, but the mechanism is not fully clear. Recent studies indicate that H2S plays an important role by regulating autophagy in many diseases including cancer, tissue fibrosis diseases and glycometabolic diseases; however, the related mechanism has not been fully studied. In this review, we summarize recent research on the role of H2S in regulating autophagy in diabetic-related diseases to provide references for future related research.

Novel Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)-Releasing BW-HS-101 and Its Non-H2S Releasing Derivative in Modulation of Microscopic and Molecular Parameters of Gastric Mucosal Barrier.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an endogenously produced molecule with anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective properties. We aimed to investigate for the first time if a novel, esterase-sensitive H2S-prodrug, BW-HS-101 with the ability to release H2S in a controllable manner, prevents gastric mucosa against acetylsalicylic acid-induced gastropathy on microscopic and molecular levels. Wistar rats were pretreated intragastrically with vehicle, BW-HS-101 (0.5-50 µmol/kg) or its analogue without the ability to release H2S, BW-iHS-101 prior to ASA administration (125 mg/kg, intragastrically). BW-HS-101 was administered alone or in combination with nitroarginine (L-NNA, 20 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) or zinc protoporphyrin IX (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). Gastroprotective effects of BW-HS-101 were additionally evaluated against necrotic damage induced by intragastrical administration of 75% ethanol. Gastric mucosal damage was assessed microscopically, and gastric blood flow was determined by laser flowmetry. Gastric mucosal DNA oxidation and PGE2 concentration were assessed by ELISA. Serum and/or gastric protein concentrations of IL-1α, IL-1ß, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-13, VEGF, GM-CSF, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and EGF were determined by a microbeads/fluorescent-based multiplex assay. Changes in gastric mucosal iNOS, HMOX-1, SOCS3, IL1-R1, IL1-R2, TNF-R2, COX-1, and COX-2 mRNA were assessed by real-time PCR. BW-HS-101 or BW-iHS-101 applied at a dose of 50 µmol/kg protected gastric mucosa against ASA-induced gastric damage and prevented a decrease in the gastric blood flow level. H2S prodrug decreased DNA oxidation, systemic and gastric mucosal inflammation with accompanied upregulation of SOCS3, and EGF and HMOX-1 expression. Pharmacological inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) synthase but not carbon monoxide (CO)/heme oxygenase (HMOX) activity by L-NNA or ZnPP, respectively, reversed the gastroprotective effect of BW-HS-101. BW-HS-101 also protected against ethanol-induced gastric injury formation. We conclude that BW-HS-101, due to its ability to release H2S in a controllable manner, prevents gastric mucosa against drugs-induced gastropathy, inflammation and DNA oxidation, and upregulate gastric microcirculation. Gastroprotective effects of this H2S prodrug involves endogenous NO but not CO activity and could be mediated by cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory SOCS3 and EGF pathways.

Trisulfides over disulfides: highly selective synthetic strategies, anti-proliferative activities and sustained H2S release profiles.

Temperature- and solvent-induced selective synthesis of trisulfides and disulfides is demonstrated. A remarkable selectivity was achieved using Na2S as a sulfur-transfer agent under mild, greener, catalyst-free and additive-free conditions. This study reveals trisulfides as a better model than disulfides in general for a sustained release of H2S and potent anti-cancer activities.

Pathogen-targeting glycovesicles as a therapy for salmonellosis.

Antibiotic therapy is usually not recommended for salmonellosis, as it is associated with prolonged fecal carriage without reducing symptom duration or severity. Here we show that antibiotics encapsulated in hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-responsive glycovesicles may be potentially useful for the treatment of salmonellosis. The antibiotics are released in the presence of Salmonella, which is known to produce H2S. This approach prevents the quick absorption of antibiotics into the bloodstream, allows localized targeting of the pathogen in the gut, and alleviates disease symptoms in a mouse infection model. In addition, it reduces antibiotic-induced changes in the gut microbiota, and increases the abundance of potentially beneficial lactobacilli due to the release of prebiotic xylooligosaccharide analogs.

Hydrogen sulfide-releasing peptide hydrogel limits the development of intimal hyperplasia in human vein segments.

Currently available interventions for vascular occlusive diseases suffer from high failure rates due to re-occlusive vascular wall adaptations, a process called intimal hyperplasia (IH). Naturally occurring hydrogen sulfide (H2S) works as a vasculoprotective gasotransmitter in vivo. However, given its reactive and hazardous nature, H2S is difficult to administer systemically. Here, we developed a hydrogel capable of localized slow release of precise amounts of H2S and tested its benefits on IH. The H2S-releasing hydrogel was prepared from a short peptide attached to an S-aroylthiooxime H2S donor. Upon dissolution in aqueous buffer, the peptide self-assembled into nanofibers, which formed a gel in the presence of calcium. This new hydrogel delivered H2S over the course of several hours, in contrast with fast-releasing NaHS. The H2S-releasing peptide/gel inhibited proliferation and migration of primary human vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), while promoting proliferation and migration of human umbilical endothelial cells (ECs). Both NaHS and the H2S-releasing gel limited IH in human great saphenous vein segments obtained from vascular patients undergoing bypass surgery, with the H2S-releasing gel showing efficacy at a 5x lower dose than NaHS. These results suggest local perivascular H2S release as a new strategy to limit VSMC proliferation and IH while promoting EC proliferation, hence re-endothelialization. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Arterial occlusive disease is the leading cause of death in Western countries, yet current therapies suffer from high failure rates due to intimal hyperplasia (IH), a thickening of the vascular wall leading to secondary vessel occlusion. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gasotransmitter with vasculoprotective properties. Here we designed and synthesized a peptide-based H2S-releasing hydrogel and found that local application of the gel reduced IH in human vein segments obtained from patients undergoing bypass surgery. This work provides the first evidence of H2S efficacy against IH in human tissue, and the results show that the gel is more effective than NaHS, a common instantaneous H2S donor.

In Vivo Measurement of H2S, Polysulfides, and "SSNO- Mix"-Mediated Vasoactive Responses and Evaluation of Ten Hemodynamic Parameters from Rat Arterial Pulse Waveform.

The chapter describes protocols and pitfalls in in vivo studies of drug effects on anesthetized rats. It focuses on the preparation of Na2S, Na2S4, and "SSNO- mix" solutions for rat intravenous administration, surgical preparation of jugular vein for drug administration, and preparation of carotid and tail arteries for recording of arterial pulse waveform (APW) at high resolution. It describes evaluation of ten hemodynamic parameters from APW and measurement of apparent pulse wave velocity.

Simultaneous Measurements of Tension and Free H2S in Mesenteric Arteries.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), in addition to nitric oxide and carbon monoxide, is the third gasotransmitter and known to cause relaxation in peripheral arteries. Here we describe a method that allows simultaneous measurement of contractility in arteries mounted in an isometric wire myograph and the concentration of free H2S in the lumen of the artery as well as in the organ bath. This method can be used to directly correlate how much free H2S is needed to cause relaxation, which previously has been difficult to answer as H2S can be found in many different forms.

Hydrogen Sulfide Toxicity: Mechanism of Action, Clinical Presentation, and Countermeasure Development.

INTRODUCTION: Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is found in various settings. Reports of chemical suicide, where individuals have combined readily available household chemicals to produce lethal concentrations of H2S, have demonstrated that H2S is easily produced. Governmental agencies have warned of potential threats of use of H2S for a chemical attack, but currently there are no FDA-approved antidotes for H2S. An ideal antidote would be one that is effective in small volume, readily available, safe, and chemically stable. In this paper we performed a review of the available literature on the mechanism of toxicity, clinical presentation, and development of countermeasures for H2S toxicity. DISCUSSION: In vivo, H2S undergoes an incomplete oxidation after an exposure. The remaining non-oxidized H2S is found in dissolved and combined forms. Dissolved forms such as H2S gas and sulfhydryl anion can diffuse between blood and tissue. The combined non-soluble forms are found as acid-labile sulfides and sulfhydrated proteins, which play a role in toxicity. Recent countermeasure development takes into account the toxicokinetics of H2S. Some countermeasures focus on binding free hydrogen sulfide (hydroxocobalamin, cobinamide); some have direct effects on the mitochondria (methylene blue), while others work by mitigating end organ damage by generating other substances such as nitric oxide (NaNO2). CONCLUSION: H2S exists in two main pools in vivo after exposure. While several countermeasures are being studied for H2S intoxication, a need exists for a small-volume, safe, highly effective antidote with a long shelf life to treat acute toxicity as well as prevent long-term effects of exposure.

Conductive Hydrogen Sulfide-Releasing Hydrogel Encapsulating ADSCs for Myocardial Infarction Treatment.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) exhibits extensive protective actions in cardiovascular systems, such as anti-inflammatory and stimulating angiogenesis, but its therapeutic potential is severely discounted by the short half-life and the poorly controlled releasing behavior. Herein, we developed a macromolecular H2S prodrug by grafting 2-aminopyridine-5-thiocarboxamide (a small-molecule H2S donor) on partially oxidized alginate (ALG-CHO) to mimic the slow and continuous release of endogenous H2S. In addition, tetraaniline (a conductive oligomer) and adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) were introduced to form a stem cell-loaded conductive H2S-releasing hydrogel through the Schiff base reaction between ALG-CHO and gelatin. The hydrogel exhibited adhesive property to ensure a stable anchoring to the wet and beating hearts. After myocardial injection, longer ADSCs retention period and elevated sulfide concentration in rat myocardium were demonstrated, accompanied by upregulation of cardiac-related mRNA (Cx43, α-SMA, and cTnT) and angiogenic factors (VEGFA and Ang-1) and downregulation of inflammatory factors (tumor necrosis factor-α). Echocardiography and histological analysis strongly demonstrated an increase in the ejection fraction value and smaller infarction size, suggesting a remarkable improvement of the cardiac functions of Sprague-Dawley rats. The ADSC-loaded conductive hydrogen sulfide-releasing hydrogel dramatically promoted the therapeutic effects, offering a promising therapeutic strategy for treating myocardial infarction.

Effects of a novel hydrogen sulfide prodrug in a porcine model of acute limb ischemia.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have shown that hydrogen sulfide (H2S) exerts potent proangiogenic properties under in vitro conditions and in rodent models. We sought to determine whether a novel H2S prodrug promotes peripheral revascularization in a swine model of acute limb ischemia (ALI). METHODS: ALI was induced in 17 female miniswine via intravascular occlusion of the external iliac. At day 7 after ALI induction, miniswine (n = 17) were randomized to received placebo or the H2S prodrug, SG-1002 (800 mg per os twice a day), for 35 days. At day 35 SG-1002 increased circulating levels of H2S (5.0 ± 1.2 µmol/L vs 1.8 ± 0.50 µmol/L; P < .05), sulfane sulfur (10.6 ± 2.3 µmol/L vs 2.6 ± 0.8 µmol/L; P < .05), and nitrite (0.5 ± 0.05 µmol/L vs 0.3 ± 0.03 µmol/L; P < .005) compared with placebo. SG-1002 therapy increased angiographic scoring in ischemic limb vessel number (27.6 ± 1.6 vs 22.2 ± 1.8; P < .05) compared with placebo. Treatment with SG-1002 preserved existing capillaries in ischemic limbs (128.3 ± 18.7 capillaries/mm2 vs 79.0 ± 9.8 capillaries/mm2; P < .05) compared with placebo. Interestingly, treatment with SG-1002 also improved coronary vasorelaxation responses to bradykinin and substance P in miniswine with ALI. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that daily administration of the H2S prodrug, SG-1002, leads to an increase in circulating H2S and nitric oxide signaling and preserves vessel number and density in ischemic limbs. Furthermore, SG-1002 therapy improved endothelial-dependent coronary artery vasorelaxation in the setting of ALI. Our data demonstrate that SG-1002 preserves the vascular architecture in ischemic limbs and exerts vascular protective effects in the coronary vasculature in a model of peripheral vascular disease.

Pharmacokinetics and Preventive Effects of Sulfo-Albumin as a Novel Macromolecular Hydrogen Sulfide Prodrug on Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Hepatic Injury.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has been recently recognized as a gaseous signaling molecule that controls various biological activities. In the present study, we developed sulfo-albumin as a macromolecular H2S prodrug for therapeutic use, in which multisulfide groups (source of H2S) were conjugated with bovine serum albumin through a covalent linkage. In an in vitro study on H2S release in phosphate buffered saline solution, we found that H2S was released from sulfo-albumin in the presence of 5-mM glutathione but not in its absence. Furthermore, sulfo-albumin was taken up by RAW 264.7 cells, and it released H2S in cells but not in plasma. These results indicate that H2S can be selectively released from sulfo-albumin in cells. 111In-labeled sulfo-albumin predominantly accumulated in the liver, dependent upon the number of sulfide groups, after intravenous injection in mice. In a carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury mouse model, sulfo-albumin significantly suppressed the increase in plasma aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase activities, which are indicators of hepatocyte injury, after intravenous injection. These findings indicate that sulfo-albumin is a promising compound for the treatment of hepatic injuries.

In situ self-spray coating system that can uniformly disperse a poorly water-soluble H2S donor on the colorectal surface to treat inflammatory bowel diseases.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an intestinal inflammatory disorder. Exogenous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) donors such as diallyl trisulfide (DATS) have been used as anti-inflammatory mediators. However, an ideal method of administering DATS has yet to be established owing to its poor water solubility. Herein, a self-spray coating system that is derived from a DATS-loaded capsule with foaming capability (CAP-w-FC) is proposed for treating colitis. Following the rectal administration of CAP-w-FC into rats bearing colitis and its subsequent dissolution in the intestinal fluid, a spray coating system is self-assembled in situ. This system greatly promotes the dissolution of the poorly water-soluble DATS by producing nano-scaled micellar particles that are sprayed onto the large luminal surface of the colorectal tract. Following the internalization of the micellar particles by colon epithelial cells, their loaded DATS reacts with intracellular glutathione to yield H2S. This exogenous H2S then diffuses through plasma membranes to carry out its biological functions, including suppressing the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inhibiting the adhesion of macrophages on the vascular endothelium, and repairing colonic inflamed tissues. Analytical results demonstrate that this self-spray coating system may be used as a unique drug delivery technique for covering the large colorectal surface to treat IBD.

Airlift bioreactor system for simultaneous removal of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia from synthetic and actual waste gases.

The effectiveness of an airlift reactor system in simultaneously removing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3) from synthetic and actual waste gases was investigated. The effects of various parameters, including the ratio of inoculum dilution, the gas concentration, the gas retention time, catalyst addition, the bubble size, and light intensity, on H2S and NH3 removal were investigated. The results revealed that optimal gas removal could be achieved by employing an activated inoculum, using a small bubble stone, applying reinforced fluorescent light, adding Fe2O3 catalysts, and applying a gas retention time of 20 s. The shock loading did not substantially affect the removal efficiency of the airlift bioreactor. Moreover, more than 98.5% of H2S and 99.6% of NH3 were removed in treating actual waste gases. Fifteen bands or species were observed in a profile from denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis during waste gas treatment. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the phylum Proteobacteria to be predominant. Six bacterial strains were consistently present during the entire operating period; however, only Rhodobacter capsulatus, Rhodopseudomonas palustris, and Arthrobacter oxydans were relatively abundant in the system. The photosynthetic bacteria R. capsulatus and R. palustris were responsible for H2S oxidation, especially when the reinforced fluorescent light was used. The heterotrophic nitrifier A. oxydans was responsible for NH3 oxidation. To our knowledge, this is the first report on simultaneous H2S and NH3 removal using an airlift bioreactor system. It clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of the system in treating actual waste gases containing H2S and NH3.

Toward Hydrogen Sulfide Based Therapeutics: Critical Drug Delivery and Developability Issues.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2 S), together with nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO), belongs to the gasotransmitter family and plays important roles in mammals as a signaling molecule. Many studies have also shown the various therapeutic effects of H2 S, which include protection against myocardial ischemia injury, cytoprotection against oxidative stress, mediation of neurotransmission, inhibition of insulin signaling, regulation of inflammation, inhibition of the hypoxia-inducible pathway, and dilation of blood vessels. One major challenge in the development of H2 S-based therapeutics is its delivery. In this manuscript, we assess the various drug delivery strategies in the context of being used research tools and eventual developability as therapeutic agents.

Parenteral Na2S, a fast-releasing H2S donor, but not GYY4137, a slow-releasing H2S donor, lowers blood pressure in rats.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is involved in blood pressure regulation. We evaluated hemodynamic effects of Na2S and morpholin-4-ium (4-methoxyphenyl)(morpholino)phosphinodithioate (GYY4137), H2S donors. GYY4137 is the most widely studied slow-releasing H2S donor, however, its ability to release H2S under physiological conditions is unclear. Hemodynamics were recorded in anaesthetized Wistar-Kyoto rats at baseline and after intravenous (IV) or intraperitoneal (IP) administration of either a vehicle (20% dimethyl sulfoxide), GYY4137 or Na2S. The stability of GYY4137 in buffers and in plasma was evaluated with nuclear magnetic resonance. The vehicle, as well as GYY4137, given IV did not affect mean arterial blood pressure (MABP), whereas Na2S produced a significant decrease in MABP. Similarly, IP given Na2S, but not GYY4137, lowered MABP. In the buffers at pH of 7.4 and 5.5 and in rat plasma no reaction of GYY4137 was found during 18 hours of observation. In contrast, rapid decomposition of GYY4137 occurred in buffers at pH 2.0. In conclusion, parenteral GYY4137 does not exert a hemodynamic effect in Wistar-Kyoto rats. This seems to be due to the high stability of GYY4137 at physiological pH. Therefore, it is likely that widely reported biological effects of GYY4137 are not H2S-dependent but may depend on GYY4137 itself. However, the H2S-dependent biological effects of GYY4137 may be expected in tissues characterized by low pH.

Metabolic, Cardiac, and Renal Effects of the Slow Hydrogen Sulfide-Releasing Molecule GYY4137 During Resuscitated Septic Shock in Swine with Pre-Existing Coronary Artery Disease.

Decreased levels of endogenous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) contribute to atherosclerosis, whereas equivocal data are available on H2S effects during sepsis. Moreover, H2S improved glucose utilization in anaesthetized, ventilated, hypothermic mice, but normothermia and/or sepsis blunted this effect. The metabolic effects of H2S in large animals are controversial. Therefore, we investigated the effects of the H2S donor GYY4137 during resuscitated, fecal peritonitis-induced septic shock in swine with genetically and diet-induced coronary artery disease (CAD). Twelve and 18 h after peritonitis induction, pigs received either GYY4137 (10 mg kg, n = 9) or vehicle (n = 8). Before, at 12 and 24 h of sepsis, we assessed left ventricular (pressure-conductance catheters) and renal (creatinine clearance, blood NGAL levels) function. Endogenous glucose production and glucose oxidation were derived from the plasma glucose isotope and the expiratory CO2/CO2 enrichment during continuous i.v. 1,2,3,4,5,6-C6-glucose infusion. GYY4137 significantly increased aerobic glucose oxidation, which coincided with higher requirements of exogenous glucose to maintain normoglycemia, as well as significantly lower arterial pH and decreased base excess. Apart from significantly lower cardiac eNOS expression and higher troponin levels, GYY4137 did not significantly influence cardiac and kidney function or the systemic inflammatory response. During resuscitated septic shock in swine with CAD, GYY4137 shifted metabolism to preferential carbohydrate utilization. Increased troponin levels are possibly due to reduced local NO availability. Cautious dosing, the timing of GYY4137 administration, and interspecies differences most likely account for the absence of any previously described anti-inflammatory or organ-protective effects of GYY4137 in this model.

H2S concentrations in the heart after acute H2S administration: methodological and physiological considerations.

In this study, we have tried to characterize the limits of the approach typically used to determine H2S concentrations in the heart based on the amount of H2S evaporating from heart homogenates-spontaneously, after reaction with a strong reducing agent, or in a very acidic solution. Heart homogenates were prepared from male rats in control conditions or after H2S infusion induced a transient cardiogenic shock (CS) or cardiac asystole (CA). Using a method of determination of gaseous H2S with a detection limit of 0.2 nmol, we found that the process of homogenization could lead to a total disappearance of free H2S unless performed in alkaline conditions. Yet, after restoration of neutral pH, free H2S concentration from samples processed in alkaline and nonalkaline milieus were similar and averaged ∼0.2-0.4 nmol/g in both control and CS homogenate hearts and up to 100 nmol/g in the CA group. No additional H2S was released from control, CS, or CA hearts by using the reducing agent tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine or a strong acidic solution (pH < 2) to "free" H2S from combined pools. Of note, the reducing agent DTT produced a significant sulfide artifact and was not used. These data suggest that 1) free H2S found in heart homogenates is not a reflection of H2S present in a "living" heart and 2) the pool of combined sulfides, released in a strong reducing or acidic milieu, does not increase in the heart in a measurable manner even after toxic exposure to sulfide.

Is exogenous hydrogen sulfide a relevant tool to address physiological questions on hydrogen sulfide?

This review challenges the use of solutions of dissolved exogenous H2S in the literature as a tool to determine the potential physiological functions of endogenous H2S as well as its putative therapeutic applications. Our major point of contention is that solutions of dissolved H2S are used in vitro at concentrations, within the high microM range, which are above the concentrations of dissolved H2S found in blood and tissues during lethal H2S exposure in vivo. In addition, since the levels of toxicity are extremely variable among cell types, a property that is seldom acknowledged, the physiological relevance of data obtained after local or in-vitro administrations of H2S at concentrations of few microM is far from certain. Conversely, the rate of disappearance of the dissolved pool of H2S in the body (being trapped or oxidized), which we found to be at least of several micromoles/kg/min, is so rapid in vivo that if relatively low quantities of H2S, i.e. few micromoles for instance, are administered, no change in H2S concentrations in the body is to be expected, unless toxic levels are used. Protocols looking at the effects of compounds slowly releasing H2S must also resolve a similar conundrum, as their effects must be reconciled with the unique ability of the blood and tissues to get rid of H2S and the steepness of the dose-toxic effects relationship. Only by developing a comprehensive framework in which H2S metabolism and toxicity will be used as a rationale to justify any experimental approach will we be able to bring definitive evidence supporting a protective role for exogenous H2S, if any, and its putative function as an endogenous mediator.

Esterase-Sensitive Prodrugs with Tunable Release Rates and Direct Generation of Hydrogen Sulfide.

Prodrugs that release hydrogen sulfide upon esterase-mediated cleavage of an ester group followed by lactonization are described herein. By modifying the ester group and thus its susceptibility to esterase, and structural features critical to the lactonization rate, H2 S release rates can be tuned. Such prodrugs directly release hydrogen sulfide without the involvement of perthiol species, which are commonly encountered with existing H2 S donors. Additionally, such prodrugs can easily be conjugated to another non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent, leading to easy synthesis of hybrid prodrugs. As a biological validation of the H2 S prodrugs, the anti-inflammatory effects of one such prodrug were examined by studying its ability to inhibit LPS-induced TNF-α production in RAW 264.7 cells. This type of H2 S prodrugs shows great potential as both research tools and therapeutic agents.