[Analysis of the characteristics of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with neuromuscular junction dysfunction prior to motor neuron degeneration].

Objective: To investigate the clinical and electrophysiological characteristics of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) with positive repetitive nerve stimulation (RNS) test results on the accessory nerve and negative needle electromyography (EMG) test results on the sternocleidomastoid with the goal to enrich the knowledge of disease progression in patients with ALS. Methods: The clinical data of 612 patients diagnosed with ALS at the Neurology Department of the First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital from June 2016 to August 2022 were collected. In total, 267 cases had undergone EMG tests on the sternocleidomastoid following a positive 3 Hz RNS test result on the accessory nerve, who were selected as the study subjects. The differences in clinical indicators were compared between RNS (+)/EMG (-) group and RNS (+)/EMG (+) group. A binomial distribution model with multiple variables was built to quantitatively analyze the major factors and their effects. Results: At the initial visit, 15.8% of patients with ALS were 3 Hz RNS (+) on the accessory nerve and EMG (-) on the ipsilateral sternocleidomastoid, accounting for 36.3% of RNS (+) patients. The decremental range of the 3 Hz RNS test delivered to the accessory nerve in these patients [-14% (-19%, -12%)] was lower than that in patients with RNS (+)/EMG (+) [-17% (-23%, -13%)] (P<0.05), while the ratio of upper limb onset (64.9%) and non-definite diagnosis (28.9%) were higher [54.7% and 13.5% for patients with RNS (+)/EMG (+), P<0.05]. Furthermore, the Revised Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Functional Rating Scale (ALSFRS-R) score [40 (37, 42)], body mass index (BMI) [23.8 (22.0, 25.4) kg/m2] and forced vital capacity (FVC) [92.8% (76.6%, 103.8%)] were higher in patients with RNS(+)/EMG(+) (P<0.05). The multivariate model suggested that, in patients with RNS (+)/EMG (-), the ratio of upper limb onset to lower limb onset was 1.04, while that of upper limb onset to bulbar onset was 2.02, and that of lower limb onset to bulbar onset was 1.94. The ratio of non-definite ALS to definite ALS was 1.13. The ALSFRS-R score, BMI, and FVC had a protective contribution to the electrophysiological function of the motor neurons. The ratio of the effect size of the ALSFRS-R or BMI to that of FVC was 3.37 and 1.14, respectively. Conclusions: Patients with ALS that were 3 Hz RNS (+) on the accessory nerve and EMG (-) on the ipsilateral sternocleidomastoid had a smaller decremental range of the compound muscle action potential amplitude, and a higher proportion of upper limb onset and non-definite ALS. A higher ALSFRS-R score, BMI, and FVC have a protective effect to the electrophysiological function of motor neurons. The effect size of the ALSFRS-R score is the largest, followed by BMI and FVC.

Neuronal Circuit Dysfunction in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

The primary neural circuit affected in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) patients is the corticospinal motor circuit, originating in upper motor neurons (UMNs) in the cerebral motor cortex which descend to synapse with the lower motor neurons (LMNs) in the spinal cord to ultimately innervate the skeletal muscle. Perturbation of these neural circuits and consequent loss of both UMNs and LMNs, leading to muscle wastage and impaired movement, is the key pathophysiology observed. Despite decades of research, we are still lacking in ALS disease-modifying treatments. In this review, we document the current research from patient studies, rodent models, and human stem cell models in understanding the mechanisms of corticomotor circuit dysfunction and its implication in ALS. We summarize the current knowledge about cortical UMN dysfunction and degeneration, altered excitability in LMNs, neuromuscular junction degeneration, and the non-cell autonomous role of glial cells in motor circuit dysfunction in relation to ALS. We further highlight the advances in human stem cell technology to model the complex neural circuitry and how these can aid in future studies to better understand the mechanisms of neural circuit dysfunction underpinning ALS.

Quantitative evaluation of factors influencing the 3 Hz repetitive nerve stimulation test in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

INTRODUCTION/AIMS: Previous studies have suggested that treatments targeting the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) may play a role in the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, factors impacting repetitive nerve stimulation (RNS), a technique to evaluate NMJ function, have yet to be fully elucidated. We aimed to identify independent factors contributing to the decremental response of the accessory nerve and evaluated its value in ALS clinical practice. METHODS: A total of 626 patients who were diagnosed with ALS and underwent 3 Hz RNS tests on the accessory nerve were enrolled. Data on their clinical and electrophysiological indicators were divided into a training set (collected from June 2016 to December 2022) and a test set (collected from January to August 2023). Stepwise regression was used in independent variable selection and model building. RESULTS: Forty-two percent of patients had a decrement larger than 10% and 24% had a decrement larger than 15%. Onset age, sex, onset site, forced vital capacity (FVC) and motor unit potential (MUP) duration were independent factors contributing to the results of the RNS test. MUP duration had the greatest impact on decremental response, followed by FVC and onset age. The decremental response in females was larger than in males. Upper limb onset was found to contribute more to the decrement than lower limb or bulbar onset. DISCUSSION: In patients with ALS, NMJ safety factor is reduced during re-innervation. Decremental response is affected by multiple factors, which needs to be considered in clinical trials targeting the NMJ in these patients.

Electrophysiological abnormalities of the neuromuscular transmission in two patients with botulism-like syndrome following Botulinum-A muscle injections.

Botulinum neurotoxin serotype A (BoNT-A) has several therapeutic indications such as spasticity and dystonia. Although its use is generally considered safe, a systemic diffusion can lead to systemic complications, and a botulism-like syndrome can occur after intramuscular injections. Herein, two adult cases who developed general muscle weakness after a BoNT-A intramuscular injection are reported. Both presented with a progressive decrement on low-frequency (LF) repetitive nerve stimulation (RNS). It is suggested that a progressive decrement on LF-RNS in muscles distant from the injection site strongly supports the diagnosis of iatrogenic botulism.

Serial repetitive nerve stimulation studies in organophosphorus poisoning indicate two distinct pathophysiological processes occur at the neuromuscular junction in the intermediate syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: Intermediate syndrome is an important cause of respiratory failure following acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. The objective of this study was to examine the pathophysiology of this syndrome by analysis of sequential repetitive nerve stimulation studies in patients with acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. METHODS: Thirty-four consenting symptomatic patients with acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning with intermediate syndrome (n = 10) or a milder forme fruste intermediate syndrome (n = 24) were assessed prospectively with daily physical examination and repetitive nerve stimulation done on the right and left median and ulnar nerves. The compound muscle action potential at 1, 3, 10, 15, 20 and 30 Hertz was measured with a train of ten stimuli. The amplitudes of the resulting stimuli were normalized to the first stimulus (100 per cent) and plotted against time. The decrease in the area under the curve of all the second stimulus compound muscle action potentials in the first 0.3 seconds was measured as a means of quantifying the refractory block. The decrease in the area under the curve under the 10, 15, 20 and 30 Hertz compound muscle action potentials relative to this pooled second stimulus compound muscle action potentials-area under the curve indicated the extent of additional rate-dependent block (decreasing compound muscle action potential-area under the curve over the first 0.3 seconds after the first stimulus with increasing Hertz). RESULTS: These new measurements strongly correlated with the severity of weakness. Refractory block was seen in most patients but was more severe in those with intermediate syndrome than those with forme fruste (partial) intermediate syndrome (median 55 per cent versus 16 per cent, P = 0.0001). Similar large differences were found for rate-dependent block (30 per cent versus 7 per cent, P = 0.001), which was uncommon in forme fruste intermediate syndrome but found in nine out of 10 patients with intermediate syndrome. Rate dependent block was generally only observed after 24 hours. The simplest strong predictor was total block at 30 Hertz repetitive nerve stimulation (89 per cent [interquartile range 73 to 94 per cent] versus 21 per cent [4 to 55 per cent]; P < 0.0001), which was very similar to total block calculated by summing other calculations. DISCUSSION: These findings likely represent depolarization and desensitization block from prolonged excessive cholinergic stimulation but it is not clear if these are from pre- or post-synaptic pathology. An animal model of intermediate syndrome with repetitive nerve stimulation studies might enable a better pathophysiological understanding of the two types of block. LIMITATIONS: The limited number of repetitive nerve stimulation studies performed were sufficient to demonstrate proof-of-concept, but further studies with more patients are needed to better define the correlates, clinical relevance and possible diagnostic/prognostic roles for the use of this technique. CONCLUSION: There are two easily distinguishable pathophysiological abnormalities in the neuromuscular block in intermediate syndrome. While they often coincide, both may be observed in isolation. The total and rate-dependent block at 30 Hertz are strongly associated with more severe weakness.

Neuromuscular consequences of spinal cord injury: New mechanistic insights and clinical considerations.

The spinal cord facilitates communication between the brain and the body, containing intrinsic systems that work with lower motor neurons (LMNs) to manage movement. Spinal cord injuries (SCIs) can lead to partial paralysis and dysfunctions in muscles below the injury. While traditionally this paralysis has been attributed to disruptions in the corticospinal tract, a growing body of work demonstrates LMN damage is a factor. Motor units, comprising the LMN and the muscle fibers with which they connect, are essential for voluntary movement. Our understanding of their changes post-SCI is still emerging, but the health of motor units is vital, especially when considering innovative SCI treatments like nerve transfer surgery. This review seeks to collate current literature on how SCI impact motor units and explore neuromuscular clinical implications and treatment avenues. SCI reduced motor unit number estimates, and surviving motor units had impaired signal transmission at the neuromuscular junction, force-generating capacity, and excitability, which have the potential to recover chronically, yet the underlaying mechanisms are unclear. Furthermore, electrodiagnostic evaluations can aid in assessing the health lower and upper motor neurons, identify suitable targets for nerve transfer surgeries, and detect patients with time sensitive injuries. Lastly, many electrodiagnostic abnormalities occur in both chronic and acute SCI, yet factors contributing to these abnormalities are unknown. Future studies are required to determine how motor units adapt following SCI and the clinical implications of these adaptations.

Statin Therapy Induces Gut Leakage and Neuromuscular Disjunction in Patients With Chronic Heart Failure.

ABSTRACT: Statins are commonly used to limit the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including ischemic heart attack and stroke. However, treatment often leads to myopathy and muscle weakness. Therefore, a better understanding of underlying pathomechanism is needed to improve the clinical outcomes. Here, we assessed the physical performance, including handgrip strength (HGS), gait speed (GS), and short physical performance battery, in 172 patients diagnosed with chronic heart failure (CHF) treated with (n = 50) or without (n = 122) statin and 59 controls. The plasma biomarkers, including sarcopenia marker C-terminal agrin fragment-22 (CAF22), intestinal barrier integrity marker zonulin, and C-reactive protein (CRP), were measured and correlated with the physical performance of patients. The HGS, short physical performance battery scores, and GS were significantly compromised in patients with CHF versus controls. Irrespective of etiology, significant elevation of plasma CAF22, zonulin, and CRP was observed in patients with CHF. There were strong inverse correlations of CAF22 with HGS (r 2 = 0.34, P < 0.0001), short physical performance battery scores (r 2 = 0.08, P = 0.0001), and GS (r 2 = 0.143, P < 0.0001). Strikingly, CAF22 and zonulin were positively correlated with each other (r 2 = 0.10, P = 0.0002) and with the level of CRP in patients with CHF. Further investigations revealed a significant induction of CAF22, zonulin, and CRP in patients with CHF taking statin versus nonstatin group. Consistently, HGS and GS were significantly lower in the statin versus nonstatin CHF patients' group. Collectively, statin therapy adversely affects the neuromuscular junction and intestinal barrier, which potentially induces systemic inflammation and physical disability in patients with CHF. Further prospective confirmation of the findings is required in a well-controlled study.

A multistrain probiotic improves handgrip strength and functional capacity in patients with COPD: A randomized controlled trial.

PURPOSE: The age-related muscle loss, termed sarcopenia and functional dependency, are common findings in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, an effective bedside treatment remains elusive. OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects of probiotics on sarcopenia and physical capacity in COPD patients. METHODS: Randomized, double-blind, computer-controlled, multicenter trial in two tertiary-care hospitals for 16 weeks. A central computer system randomly allocated male, 63-73 years old COPD patients into placebo (n=53) and probiotic (n=51) groups. The intervention was Vivomix 112 billion*, one capsule a day for 16 weeks. The main outcomes measured were sarcopenia phenotype, short physical performance battery (SPPB), plasma markers of intestinal permeability (zonulin and claudin-3) and neuromuscular junction degradation (CAF22), body composition, and handgrip strength (HGS) before and following the probiotics treatment. FINDINGS: 4 patients discontinued intervention due to poor compliance and 100 patients, including placebo (n=53) and probiotic (n=47) groups were analyzed. Probiotics reduced plasma zonulin, claudin-3, and CAF22, along with an improvement in HGS, gait speed, and SPPB scores (all p<0.05). Probiotic treatment also reduced the plasma c-reactive proteins and 8-isoprostane levels, the markers of systemic inflammation and oxidative stress (p<0.05). Correlation analysis revealed varying degrees of association of plasma biomarkers with sarcopenia indexes. Despite a statistical trend, we did not find a reduction in sarcopenia prevalence in the probiotic group. CONCLUSION: Taken together, the multistrain probiotic improves muscle strength and functional performance in COPD patients by reducing intestinal permeability and stabilizing neuromuscular junction. TRIAL REGISTRATION: GMC clinical trial unit, GMC-CREC-00263.

Increased MFG-E8 at neuromuscular junctions is an exacerbating factor for sarcopenia-associated denervation.

Sarcopenia is an important health problem associated with adverse outcomes. Although the etiology of sarcopenia remains poorly understood, factors apart from muscle fibers, including humoral factors, might be involved. Here, we used cytokine antibody arrays to identify humoral factors involved in sarcopenia and found a significant increase in levels of milk fat globule epidermal growth factor 8 (MFG-E8) in skeletal muscle of aged mice, compared with young mice. We found that the increase in MFG-E8 protein at arterial walls and neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) in muscles of aged mice. High levels of MFG-E8 at NMJs and an age-related increase in arterial MFG-E8 have also been identified in human skeletal muscle. In NMJs, MFG-E8 is localized on the surface of terminal Schwann cells, which are important accessory cells for the maintenance of NMJs. We found that increased MFG-E8 at NMJs precedes age-related denervation and is more prominent in sarcopenia-susceptible fast-twitch than in sarcopenia-resistant slow-twitch muscle. Comparison between fast and slow muscles further revealed that arterial MFG-E8 can be uncoupled from sarcopenic phenotype. A genetic deficiency in MFG-E8 attenuated age-related denervation of NMJs and muscle weakness, providing evidence of a pathogenic role of increased MFG-E8. Thus, our study revealed a mechanism by which increased MFG-E8 at NMJs leads to age-related NMJ degeneration and suggests that targeting MFG-E8 could be a promising therapeutic approach to prevent sarcopenia.

Asymmetry and changes in the neuromuscular profile of short-track athletes as a result of strength training.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to identify the biomedical signals of short-track athletes by evaluating the effects of monthly strength training on changes in their neuromuscular profile, strength, and power parameters of the lower limb muscles. Muscle asymmetry, which can cause a risk of injury, was also evaluated. METHODS AND RESULTS: This study involved female athletes, age 18.8 ± 2.7 years, with a height of 162 ± 2.4 cm, and weight of 55.9 ± 3.9 kg. Before and after the monthly preparatory period prior to the season, strength measurements were assessed through the Swift SpeedMat platform, and reactivity of the lower limb muscles was assessed with tensiomyography (TMG). The athletes were also tested before and after the recovery training period. In the test after strength training, all average countermovement jump (CMJ) results improved. Flight time showed an increase with a moderate to large effect, using both legs (5.21%). Among the TMG parameters, time contraction (Tc) changed globally with a decrease (-5.20%). Changes in the results of the test after recovery training were most often not significant. CONCLUSION: A monthly period of strength training changes the neuromuscular profile of short-track female athletes, with no significant differences between the right and left lower limbs.

Dual SMN inducing therapies can rescue survival and motor unit function in symptomatic ∆7SMA mice.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive disease characterized by survival motor neuron (SMN) protein deficiency which results in motor neuron loss and muscle atrophy. SMA is caused by a mutation or deletion of the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene and retention of the nearly identical SMN2 gene. SMN2 contains a C to T change in exon 7 that results in exon 7 exclusion from 90% of transcripts. SMN protein lacking exon 7 is unstable and rapidly degraded. The remaining full-length transcripts from SMN2 are insufficient for normal motor neuron function leading to the development of SMA. Three different therapeutic approaches that increase full-length SMN (FL-SMN) protein production are approved for treatment of SMA patients. Studies in both animal models and humans have demonstrated increasing SMN levels prior to onset of symptoms provides the greatest therapeutic benefit. Treatment of SMA, after some motor neuron loss has occurred, is also effective but to a lesser degree. The SMN∆7 mouse model is a well characterized model of severe or type 1 SMA, dying at 14 days of age. Here we treated three groups of ∆7SMA mice starting before, roughly during, and after symptom onset to determine if combining two mechanistically distinct SMN inducing therapies could improve the therapeutic outcome both before and after motor neuron loss. We found, compared with individual therapies, that morpholino antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) directed against ISS-N1 combined with the small molecule compound RG7800 significantly increased FL-SMN transcript and protein production resulting in improved survival and weight of ∆7SMA mice. Moreover, when give late symptomatically, motor unit function was completely rescued with no loss in function at 100 days of age in the dual treatment group. We have therefore shown that this dual therapeutic approach successfully increases SMN protein and rescues motor function in symptomatic ∆7SMA mice.

[Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome]. / Síndrome miasteniforme de Lambert-Eaton.

INTRODUCTION: Early diagnosis based on clinical findings, neurophysiological studies and serum antibody titres allows early initiation of symptomatic treatment and oncological screening. Reports of patients with LEMS in Latin America are scarce. AIM: This article aims to describe the characteristics of patients with LEMS from a private centre in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and to compare them with those of other series that have been published. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The medical records of 13 patients with LEMS with clinical findings, compatible electromyogram and/or positive antibodies were reviewed. Follow-up was performed until associated neoplasia was ruled out or confirmed according to the recommended algorithms. RESULTS: Four patients were diagnosed with T-LEMS, two of them with small-cell lung carcinoma. Of the nine patients with NT-LEMS, five had a DELTA-P score of 3 and 4. Nine patients presented with the classic clinical triad from the onset of the disease. All patients had electromyogram findings compatible with presynaptic neuromuscular plaque defect. Of the total, 70% improved symptomatically with pyridostigmine. CONCLUSIONS: The clinical findings, together with compatible neurophysiological studies, are sufficient for the diagnosis of LEMS. The relationship between the DELTA-P score and the risk of small-cell lung carcinoma could not be replicated. Symptomatic treatment with pyridostigmine represents an effective therapeutic alternative.

TITLE: Síndrome miasteniforme de Lambert-Eaton.Introducción. El síndrome miasteniforme de Lambert-Eaton (LEMS) es una patología paraneoplásica (T-LEMS) o idiopática autoinmunitaria (NT-LEMS) ocasionada por autoanticuerpos contra los canales de calcio dependientes del voltaje presinápticos de la unión neuromuscular. El 60% de los T-LEMS se asocia a carcinoma de pulmón de células pequeñas. Una puntuación Dutch-English LEMS Tumor Association Prediction (DELTA-P) mayor de 3 denota un riesgo elevado de dicha asociación. El diagnóstico precoz fundado en los hallazgos clínicos, estudios neurofisiológicos y dosificación de títulos de anticuerpos en el suero permite iniciar tempranamente el tratamiento sintomático y la búsqueda oncológica. Son escasos los informes de pacientes con LEMS en Latinoamérica. Objetivo. Describir las características de pacientes con LEMS de un centro privado de Buenos Aires, Argentina, y compararlas con las de otras series publicadas. Pacientes y métodos. Se revisaron historias clínicas de 13 pacientes con LEMS con hallazgos clínicos, electromiograma compatible y/o anticuerpos positivos. Se realizó seguimiento hasta descartar o confirmar una neoplasia asociada de acuerdo con los algoritmos recomendados. Resultados. Cuatro pacientes presentaron diagnóstico de T-LEMS, dos de ellos con carcinoma de pulmón de células pequeñas. De los nueve pacientes con NT-LEMS, cinco presentaron una puntuación DELTA-P de 3 y 4. Nueve pacientes presentaron la tríada clínica clásica desde el inicio. Todos los pacientes presentaron en el electromiograma hallazgos compatibles con defecto de placa neuromuscular presináptico. El 70% mejoró sintomáticamente con piridostigmina. Conclusiones. Los hallazgos clínicos, junto con los estudios neurofisiológicos compatibles, resultan suficientes para el diagnóstico de LEMS. No pudo replicarse la relación entre puntuación DELTA-P y riesgo de carcinoma de pulmón de células pequeñas. El tratamiento sintomático con piridostigmina representa una alternativa terapéutica eficaz.

Locomotor deficits in a mouse model of ALS are paralleled by loss of V1-interneuron connections onto fast motor neurons.

ALS is characterized by progressive inability to execute movements. Motor neurons innervating fast-twitch muscle-fibers preferentially degenerate. The reason for this differential vulnerability and its consequences on motor output is not known. Here, we uncover that fast motor neurons receive stronger inhibitory synaptic inputs than slow motor neurons, and disease progression in the SOD1G93A mouse model leads to specific loss of inhibitory synapses onto fast motor neurons. Inhibitory V1 interneurons show similar innervation pattern and loss of synapses. Moreover, from postnatal day 63, there is a loss of V1 interneurons in the SOD1G93A mouse. The V1 interneuron degeneration appears before motor neuron death and is paralleled by the development of a specific locomotor deficit affecting speed and limb coordination. This distinct ALS-induced locomotor deficit is phenocopied in wild-type mice but not in SOD1G93A mice after appearing of the locomotor phenotype when V1 spinal interneurons are silenced. Our study identifies a potential source of non-autonomous motor neuronal vulnerability in ALS and links ALS-induced changes in locomotor phenotype to inhibitory V1-interneurons.

Dominant and recessive congenital myasthenic syndromes caused by SYT2 mutations.

INTRODUCTION/AIMS: We studied a patient with a congenital myasthenic syndrome (CMS) caused by a dominant mutation in the synaptotagmin 2 gene (SYT2) and compared the clinical features of this patient with those of a previously described patient with a recessive mutation in the same gene. METHODS: We performed electrodiagnostic (EDX) studies, genetic studies, muscle biopsy, microelectrode recordings and electron microscopy (EM). RESULTS: Both patients presented with muscle weakness and bulbar deficits, which were worse in the recessive form. EDX studies showed presynaptic failure, which was more prominent in the recessive form. Microelectrode studies in the dominant form showed a marked reduction of the quantal content, which increased linearly with higher frequencies of nerve stimulation. The MEPP frequencies were normal at rest but increased markedly with higher frequencies of nerve stimulation. The EM demonstrated overdeveloped postsynaptic folding, and abundant endosomes, multivesicular bodies and degenerative lamellar bodies inside small nerve terminals. DISCUSSION: The recessive form of CMS caused by a SYT2 mutation showed far more severe clinical manifestations than the dominant form. The pathogenesis of the dominant form likely involves a dominant-negative effect due to disruption of the dual function of synaptotagmin as a Ca2+ -sensor and modulator of synaptic vesicle exocytosis.

Human motor units in microfluidic devices are impaired by FUS mutations and improved by HDAC6 inhibition.

Neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) ensure communication between motor neurons (MNs) and muscle; however, in MN disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), NMJs degenerate resulting in muscle atrophy. The aim of this study was to establish a versatile and reproducible in vitro model of a human motor unit to investigate the effects of ALS-causing mutations. Therefore, we generated a co-culture of human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived MNs and human primary mesoangioblast-derived myotubes in microfluidic devices. A chemotactic and volumetric gradient facilitated the growth of MN neurites through microgrooves resulting in the interaction with myotubes and the formation of NMJs. We observed that ALS-causing FUS mutations resulted in reduced neurite outgrowth as well as an impaired neurite regrowth upon axotomy. NMJ numbers were likewise reduced in the FUS-ALS model. Interestingly, the selective HDAC6 inhibitor, Tubastatin A, improved the neurite outgrowth, regrowth, and NMJ morphology, prompting HDAC6 inhibition as a potential therapeutic strategy for ALS.

Acute non-traumatic tetraparesis - Differential diagnosis.

INTRODUCTION: Potentially life-threatening disorders may present in the emergency department with acute tetraparesis, and their recognition is crucial for an appropriate management and timely treatment. Our review aims to systematize the differential diagnosis of acute non-traumatic tetraparesis. RESULTS: Causes of tetraparesis can be classified based on the site of defect: upper motor neuron (UMN), peripheral nerve, neuromuscular junction or muscle. History of present illness should include the distribution of weakness (symmetric/asymmetric or distal/proximal/diffuse) and associated clinical features (pain, sensory findings, dysautonomia, and cranial nerve abnormalities such as diplopia and dysphagia). Neurological examination, particularly tendon reflexes, helps further in the localization of nerve lesions and distinction between UMN and lower motor neuron. Ancillary studies include blood and cerebral spinal fluid analysis, neuroaxis imaging, electromyography, muscle magnetic resonance and muscle biopsy. CONCLUSIONS: Acute tetraparesis is still a debilitating and potentially serious neurological condition. Despite all the supplementary ancillary tests, the neurological examination is the key to achieve a correct diagnosis. The identification of life-threatening neurologic disorders is pivotal, since failing to identify patients at risk of complications, such as acute respiratory failure, may have catastrophic results.

C. elegans detects toxicity of traumatic brain injury generated tau.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with widespread tau pathology in about 30% of patients surviving late after injury. We previously found that TBI in mice induces the formation of an abnormal form of tau (tauTBI) which progressively spreads from the site of injury to remote brain regions. Intracerebral inoculation of TBI brain homogenates into naïve mice induced progressive tau pathology, synaptic loss and late cognitive decline, suggesting a pivotal role of tauTBI in post-TBI neurodegeneration. However, the possibility that tauTBI was a marker of TBI-associated neurodegeneration rather than a toxic driver of functional decline could not be excluded. Here we employed the nematode C. elegans as a biosensor to test the pathogenic role of TBI generated tau. The motility of this nematode depends on efficient neuromuscular transmission and is exceptionally sensitive to the toxicity of amyloidogenic proteins, providing a tractable model for our tests. We found that worms exposed to brain homogenates from chronic but not acute TBI mice, or from mice in which tauTBI had been transmitted by intracerebral inoculation, had impaired motility and neuromuscular synaptic transmission. Results were similar when worms were given brain homogenates from transgenic mice overexpressing tau P301L, a tauopathy mouse model, suggesting that TBI-induced and mutant tau have similar toxic properties. P301L brain homogenate toxicity was similar in wild-type and ptl-1 knock-out worms, indicating that the nematode tau homolog protein PTL-1 was not required to mediate the toxic effect. Harsh protease digestion to eliminate the protein component of the homogenates, pre-incubation with anti-tau antibodies or tau depletion by immunoprecipitation, abolished the toxicity. Homogenates of chronic TBI brains from tau knock-out mice were not toxic to C. elegans, whereas oligomeric recombinant tau was sufficient to impair their motility. This study indicates that tauTBI impairs motor activity and synaptic transmission in C. elegans and supports a pathogenic role of tauTBI in the long-term consequences of TBI. It also sets the groundwork for the development of a C. elegans-based platform for screening anti-tau compounds.

Extensive Variation in the Activities of Pseudocerastes and Eristicophis Viper Venoms Suggests Divergent Envenoming Strategies Are Used for Prey Capture.

Snakes of the genera Pseudocerastes and Eristicophis (Viperidae: Viperinae) are known as the desert vipers due to their association with the arid environments of the Middle East. These species have received limited research attention and little is known about their venom or ecology. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of desert viper venoms was conducted by visualising the venom proteomes via gel electrophoresis and assessing the crude venoms for their cytotoxic, haemotoxic, and neurotoxic properties. Plasmas sourced from human, toad, and chicken were used as models to assess possible prey-linked venom activity. The venoms demonstrated substantial divergence in composition and bioactivity across all experiments. Pseudocerastes urarachnoides venom activated human coagulation factors X and prothrombin and demonstrated potent procoagulant activity in human, toad, and chicken plasmas, in stark contrast to the potent neurotoxic venom of P. fieldi. The venom of E. macmahonii also induced coagulation, though this did not appear to be via the activation of factor X or prothrombin. The coagulant properties of P. fieldi and P. persicus venoms varied among plasmas, demonstrating strong anticoagulant activity in the amphibian and human plasmas but no significant effect in that of bird. This is conjectured to reflect prey-specific toxin activity, though further ecological studies are required to confirm any dietary associations. This study reinforces the notion that phylogenetic relatedness of snakes cannot readily predict venom protein composition or function. The significant venom variation between these species raises serious concerns regarding antivenom paraspecificity. Future assessment of antivenom is crucial.

Macrophage roles in peripheral nervous system injury and pathology: Allies in neuromuscular junction recovery.

Peripheral nerve injuries remain challenging to treat despite extensive research on reparative processes at the injury site. Recent studies have emphasized the importance of immune cells, particularly macrophages, in recovery from nerve injury. Macrophage plasticity enables numerous functions at the injury site. At early time points, macrophages perform inflammatory functions, but at later time points, they adopt pro-regenerative phenotypes to support nerve regeneration. Research has largely been limited, however, to the injury site. The neuromuscular junction (NMJ), the synapse between the nerve terminal and end target muscle, has received comparatively less attention, despite the importance of NMJ reinnervation for motor recovery. Macrophages are present at the NMJ following nerve injury. Moreover, in denervating diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), macrophages may also play beneficial roles at the NMJ. Evidence of positive macrophages roles at the injury site after peripheral nerve injury and at the NMJ in denervating pathologies suggest that macrophages may promote NMJ reinnervation. In this review, we discuss the intersection of nerve injury and immunity, with a focus on macrophages.

Modeling the neuromuscular junction in vitro: an approach to study neuromuscular junction disorders.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a specialized structure that works as an interface to translate the action potential of the presynaptic motor neuron (MN) in the contraction of the postsynaptic myofiber. The design of appropriate experimental models is essential to have efficient and reliable approaches to study NMJ development and function, but also to generate conditions that recapitulate distinct features of diseases. Initial studies relied on the use of tissue slices maintained under the same environment and in which single motor axons were difficult to trace. Later, MNs and muscle cells were obtained from primary cultures or differentiation of progenitors and cocultured as monolayers; however, the tissue architecture was lost. Current approaches include self-assembling 3D structures or the incorporation of biomaterials with cells to generate engineered tissues, although the incorporation of Schwann cells remains a challenge. Thus, numerous investigations have established different NMJ models, some of which are quite complex and challenging. Our review summarizes the in vitro models that have emerged in recent years to coculture MNs and skeletal muscle, trying to mimic the healthy and diseased NMJ. We expect our review may serve as a reference for choosing the appropriate experimental model for the required purposes of investigation.