Hospital Compounding in Nigeria: A Review of Needs, Practice, and Suggestions for Pharmaceutical Dispensing Ciurriculum Development.

Dispensing remains a key component of the pharmacy undergraduate curriculum, teaching skills in the individualized preparation of medicines. In hospitals, pharmacists compound medicines to improve access for patients who would otherwise not have the medicine in the suitable formulation. Current trends suggest that the dispensing curriculum needs to be improved to include topics that will equip students with skills and competences in hospital compounding. The objective of this review was to describe compounding needs and practices in hospitals in Nigeria with a view to curriculum development. Four studies were retrieved that show that compounding was for magistral preparations or products prepared from other existing products. Most of the compounded medicines were oral liquids for use in pediatric patients. The majority of compounded medicines were in three therapeutic groups: 1) cardiovascular, 2) antimicrobials, and 3) vitamins. These were commonly prepared by crushing tablets or emptying capsules into compounding vehicles such as distilled water, vitamin C, or vitamin B-complex syrups. Being magistral, these are not included in the curriculum by default, as the curriculum focuses on officinal preparations. Expanded training to include a module incorporating protocols for the preparation and quality and stability testing for these compounded medicines advances the practice of dispensing and is urgently needed.

Microsphere formulations of ambroxol hydrochloride: influence of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) mucilage as a sustained release polymer.

Ambroxol hydrochloride (AH), a secretion-releasing expectorant, is a good candidate for sustained delivery. Mucilages are biodegradable, inexpensive carriers in microsphere formulations. The study aimed to prepare microspheres of AH using Okra mucilage obtained from pods of Abelmoschus esculentus combined with sodium alginate at various polymer/drug ratios. Okra mucilage was characterized for morphology, swelling, viscosity and flow properties. AH microspheres were prepared by ionic emulsification method and characterized using size, entrapment efficiency, swelling index and dissolution time (t50). A full 2 by 3 factorial experimental design using three factors (Okra mucilage/alginate ratio X1; drug/polymer ratio X2; and polymer concentration X3), each at two levels, was used to determine the effects of formulation variables on the responses. Optimized formulations of AH microspheres had sizes ranging from 250.91 ± 16.22 to 462.10 ± 23.85 µm; swelling index 1.35 ± 0.05 and 3.20 ± 0.03 and entrapment 55.70 ± 3.55-94.11 ± 4.50%. The microspheres exhibited sustained release of AH over a prolonged period as revealed by the dissolution time (t50) 2.85 ± 1.03-7.50 ± 0.96 h. Drug release kinetics generally followed zero order, implying that the process is constant and independent of the initial concentration of drug. Polymer concentration had the highest influence on microsphere size, entrapment efficiency and dissolution time while Okra/alginate ratio had the highest influence on swelling. Okra mucilage was a suitable polymer that could serve as an alternative to synthetic polymers in sustaining the release of ambroxol hydrochloride.

Preliminary investigations of banana (Musa paradisiaca) starch mucilage as binder in metformin tablet formulation.

The binding properties of banana (Musa paradisiaca) starchwas investigated using maize starch BP and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as standards in the formulation of metformin tablets. Starch from unripe banana fruits was extracted with distilled water. Mucilages of the banana and maize starches and solutions of PVP at 5 and 10 %w/v were used to produce metformin granules by wet granulation and compressed into tablets. Granules and tablets properties were evaluated. Compatibility studies using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were also carried out. Granules flow properties was of the order: PVP>banana starch > maize starch. DSC and FTIR analysis reveals no interaction between excipients and metformin. Increase in concentration of banana starch mucilage from 5-10% w/v led to an increase in hardness, disintegration time and decrease in friability of the tablets. Tablets of banana starch mucilages were comparable in tablet properties with those of maize starch mucilages and PVP solutions with no significant differences (p<0.05). The tablets exhibited crushing strength, friability and disintegration time values ranging from 6.75-12.00 kp, 0.82-1.50 % and 11.04-14.51 min, respectively. The tablet parameters met compendial requirements at binder concentrations studied except friability values for tablets of PVP. Results revealed that banana starch could be used as a binding agent in metformin tablet formulation due to its comparable binding property with maize starch BP and PVP.

Evaluation of fast disintegrating tablets of paracetamol prepared from a blend of croscarmellose sodium and Pleurotus tuber-regium powder.

The study investigated the combination effects of the mixture of croscarmellose sodium and Pleurotus tuber-regium powder on the granules and tableting parameters of paracetamol tablets. Five batches (A-E) of paracetamol tablets were formulated using wet granulation method with various combination ratios of croscarmellose sodium and Pleurotus tuber-regium powder as disintegrant incorporated both intra- and extra granularly. Their granule properties such as bulk and tapped densities, angle of repose, Carr's index, Hausner's ratio and post compression parameters such as friability, hardness, disintegration time and drug release profiles were evaluated. The results showed a decrease in disintegration time with increasing concentration of Pleurotus tuber-regium powder with disintegration times < 3.58 min. There was an increase in hardness (values > 4.34 kp) and a decrease in friability (values < 0.6 %) of the tablets with increasing concentrations of Pleurotus tuber-regium. All the tablets exhibited comparable drug release profiles with over 80 % of their drugs released in 1 h. Harder and less friable fast disintegrating tablets of paracetamol can be obtained with Pleurotus tuber-regium powder in combination with croscarmellose sodium. The combination of croscarmellose sodium and Pleurotus tuber-regium possesses potentiative effect on their disintegrant activity.

Influence of formulation technique on acrylate methacrylate copolymer modified paracetamol matrix tablets.

This work was designed to evaluate the influence of various methods such as dry granulation (DG), wet granulation (using the polymer in an ethanolic solution (WGO) or aqueous dispersion (WGA) and solid dispersion (SD) techniques, on properties of paracetamol matrix tablets prepared using varying concentrations of acrylate methacrylate copolymer. Tablet properties were investigated using official and unofficial standards. Drug dissolution profile assessed at pH 1.2 was studied spectrophotometrically at λ(max) of 245 nm. With the use of various kinetic models, the release mechanism of the drug was analyzed. The parameters, maximum amount of drug release (m(∞)) at time t(∞) were obtained, m(∞) was ≥ 91.36 %, while t(∞) was ≥ 4.5 h. The release rate constant (k) for DG tablets was 15.61 h(sup>-1(/sup>, while, WGO, WGA and SD tablets were 12.90, 11.03 and 10.75 h(-1) respectively. The matrix tablets, which exhibited marked retardation in drug release displayed a Higuchi square root of time model (R(2) > 0.98). The mechanism through which the drug was released was governed by Fickian diffusion release (n values < 0.5). The performance of the drug was affected by the formulation technique in the order of SD > WGO > WGA > DG.

Formulation and in vitro release studies of pegylated mucin based matrix tablets.

The effects of polymer concentration on the flow properties of granules and in-vitro release profiles from matrix tablets of three model drugs formulated from pegylated mucin base was investigated. Mucin was extracted from the African giant snail and in combination with PEG was used to produce a copolymer matrix base, which was mixed with the model drugs using wet granulation method. The granules and tablets were evaluated according to official and unofficial requirements. Results showed best flow with Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and Chloroquine Phosphate (CQ) granules with Hausner ratio of 1.04-1.2, Carr's index of 4.2-17.5% and angle of repose between 19°-26°. The tablets met B.P specifications with respect to tablet weights, friability and drug content. The release profiles showed faster release of the drug with high content of PEG and a slower release with high concentration of mucin. Pegylated mucin base will find useful application in the development of a wide range of formulations.