Self-Controlled Feedback in Motor Learning: The Effects Depend on the Frequency of Request.

The benefits of allowing learners to control when to receive knowledge of results (KR) compared to a yoked group has been recently challenged and postulated to be mild at best. A potential explanation for such dissident findings is that individuals differentially utilize the autonomy provided by the self-controlled condition, which, in its turn, affects the outcomes. Therefore, the present study investigated the effects of self-controlled KR on motor learning focusing on the frequency of KR requests when performing an anticipatory timing task. Self-controlled groups were created based on participants' KR frequency of request (High, Medium, and Low referring to fifth, third, and first quintile) and, then, Yoked groups were created self-control condition pairing the KR request of the Self-controlled groups. We also measured self-efficacy and processing time as means to verify potential correlates. The results supported the expected interaction. While no difference between self-controlled and yoked groups were found for low frequencies of KR, a moderate amount of KR request was related to better results for the self-controlled group. Nonetheless, the opposite trend was observed for high frequencies of KR; the yoked group was superior to the self-controlled group. The results of this study allow us to conclude that the choices made, and not just the possibility of choosing, seem to define the benefits of KR self-control in motor learning.

Moderate-intensity cardiovascular exercise performed before motor practice attenuates offline implicit motor learning in stroke survivors but not age-matched neurotypical adults.

The acute impact of cardiovascular exercise on implicit motor learning of stroke survivors is still unknown. We investigated the effects of cardiovascular exercise on implicit motor learning of mild-moderately impaired chronic stroke survivors and neurotypical adults. We addressed whether exercise priming effects are time-dependent (e.g., exercise before or after practice) in the encoding (acquisition) and recall (retention) phases. Forty-five stroke survivors and 45 age-matched neurotypical adults were randomized into three sub-groups: BEFORE (exercise, then motor practice), AFTER (motor practice, then exercise), and No-EX (motor practice alone). All sub-groups practiced a serial reaction time task (five repeated and two pseudorandom sequences per day) on three consecutive days, followed 7 days later by a retention test (one repeated sequence). Exercise was performed on a stationary bike, (one 20-min bout per day) at 50% to 70% heart rate reserve. Implicit motor learning was measured as a difference score (repeated-pseudorandom sequence response time) during practice (acquisition) and recall (delayed retention). Separate analyses were performed on the stroke and neurotypical groups using linear mixed-effects models (participant ID was a random effect). There was no exercise-induced benefit on implicit motor learning for any sub-group. However, exercise performed before practice impaired encoding in neurotypical adults and attenuated retention performance of stroke survivors. There is no benefit to implicit motor learning of moderately intense cardiovascular exercise for stroke survivors or age-matched neurotypical adults, regardless of timing. Practice under a high arousal state and exercise-induced fatigue may have attenuated offline learning in stroke survivors.

Obesity impairs performing and learning a timing perception task regardless of the body position.

Obesity has been associated with poorer sensorimotor performance. However, it remains unclear whether these obesity-related impairments can be mitigated by practice. In the present study, we sought to investigate the effects of practice on performing and learning a temporal estimation task, in women with and without obesity. The experimental task consisted of synchronizing the arrival of two rectangles at a target point. Limited to the pressing of a switch, the task was intended to minimize possible muscular fatigue, self-generated perturbations to balance and the need to accelerate/decelerate body segments. Participants were allowed to choose the displacement velocity of the rectangle they controlled and were informed that they would not be offered any choice over it during a test to come. To control for the effect of different body positions on sensorimotor performance and learning, the 19 women with obesity (BMI = 40.0 + 7.33, age = 44.2 + 6.6) and 20 without obesity (BMI = 22.3 + 1.95, age = 43 + 6.9) were assigned into 4 groups, according to their BMI and body position assumed during practice (standing upright with feet together or sitting). As no significant differences concerning body position were found, the data were reanalysed disregarding this factor. Results revealed that while both groups reduced errors during the Acquisition, participants with obesity showed poorer performance (Acquisition) and sensorimotor learning (Transfer). Given the experimental task and adopted procedures, our results tend to support the hypothesis that hindered perception and/or integration of sensory information is associated with obesity.

Knowledge of Results do not Affect Self-Efficacy and Skill Acquisition on an Anticipatory Timing Task.

The literature provides that self-efficacy increases if individuals receive more information of their success during practice with a consequent increase in learning outcomes. The objective of this study was to test the effects of different knowledge of results (KR) frequencies on self-efficacy and motor learning. Two groups with different KR frequencies performed an anticipatory timing task on two consecutive days. To measure self-efficacy, a questionnaire on participant's efficacy was applied at different times. Both groups increased self-efficacy during practice, but we found no evidence of the effect of performance on self-efficacy and no group and self-efficacy effect on retention. These findings demonstrate that different KR frequencies do not affect the self-efficacy and learning of an anticipatory timing task.

The relation between gross motor coordination and health-related physical fitness through raw and standardized measures from the KTK and Fitnessgram tests

Abstract Aim: The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of considering single/ combined and raw/ standardized measures from the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) and Fitnessgram tests on the relation between GMC and HRPF in four age-groups. Method: Participated five-hundred thirty-one children and adolescents (279 boys). The individuals were divided into four groups: 4 to 7, 7 to 9.5, 9.5 to 12, 12 to 15 years of age. We utilized the KTK and Fitnessgram tests to measure, respectively, GMC and HRPF. Bootstrap correlations and χ2 tests were performed for all individuals, and each group controlling for sex. Results: For the raw scores, correlations were around (absolute) r = 0.37, except body composition, with large decreases when controlling for age and sex. For standardized tests, considering either the GMC quotient or GMC categories, correlations were all significant (around r = 0.34). Finally, considering broad categories (apt/non-apt and coordinated/non-coordinated), the association was 0.16. Conclusions: We found clear influences of the measure utilized on the association between GMC and HRPF measures.

Development and Validation of a Checklist to Assess Proficient Performance of Basketball Straight Speed Dribbling Skill.

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a checklist to assess proficient performance of basketball straight speed dribbling skill. The sample was composed of 100 children and adolescents between 7 and 15 years of age with and without structured practice in basketball. The validation process tested the validity domain, decision, tendencies, reliability, responsiveness, and objectivity. The results show that the checklist contains criteria that represent the speed dribbling skill and is sensible to distinguish between different proficiency levels of performance. The results also expressed high reliability and objectivity (intra and inter-rater). In light of the findings, we concluded that the checklist can be used to reliably analyze performance and evaluate the process of learning and development of the straight speed dribbling skill.

Do we know what we need? Preference for feedback about accurate performances does not benefit sensorimotor learning.

Previous research on skill acquisition has shown that learners seem to prefer receiving knowledge of results (KR) about those trials in which they have performed more accurately. In the present study, we assessed whether this preference leads to an advantage in terms of skill acquisition, transfer, and retention of their capacity to extrapolate the motion of decelerating objects during periods of visual occlusion. Instead of questionnaires, we adopted a more direct approach to investigate learners' preferences for KR. Participants performed 90 trials of a motion extrapolation task (acquisition phase) in which, every three trials, they could decide between receiving KR about their best or worst performance. Retention and transfer tests were carried out 24 hr after the acquisition phase, without KR, to examine the effects of the self-selected KR on sensorimotor learning. Consistent with the current literature, a preference for receiving KR about the most accurate performance was observed. However, participants' preferences were not consistent throughout the experiment as less than 10% (N = 40) selected the same type of KR in all their choices. Importantly, although preferred by most participants, KR about accurate performances had detrimental effects on skill acquisition, suggesting that learners may not always choose the KR that will maximize their learning experiences and skill retention. (PsycINFO Database Record

Effects of distinct practice conditions on the learning of the o soto gari throwing technique of judo.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different types of practice on learning the o soto gari, focusing on the kuzushi (unbalancing the opponent). A total of 64 children (mean age 9.19 ± 1.41 years) were assigned to one of four groups: (1) static traditional practice, i.e., uchikomi - repetition of the moving pattern that characterises the technique up to the point of throwing; (2) in motion traditional practice - uchikomi with the tori (player executing the technique) moving/walking; (3) whole practice with pre-kuzushi - full technique with a preparatory component for kuzushi; (4) progressive parts practice with pre-kuzushi - progressively introducing kuzushi, tsukuri (set-up to execute the technique) and kake (final part of the technique; projection) with pre-kuzushi. Pre-test, acquisition, post-test and retention test were carried out. Movements were video recorded and analysed regarding three aspects: global technique of the tori, occurrence of a movement pattern performed by the tori to unbalance the uke (player receiving the "attack"), and occurrence of actual unbalance (kuzushi). Results showed no significant differences between-groups. However, different within-groups improvements suggest that using a uchikomi with pre-kuzushi can help learners deal with the motor actions of pulling and pushing in order to unbalance the opponent.

Efeitos do autocontrole da sequência de movimentos na aprendizagem de uma tarefa de "timing" coincidente / Effects of self-controlling the movement sequence on learning a coincident timing task

O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar os efeitos de autocontrolar a sequência de movimentos, na aprendizagem de uma tarefa de "timing" coincidente. Trinta adultos jovens (idade = 23 ± 5,5 anos) sem experiência prévia na tarefa foram distribuídos aleatoriamente em dois grupos com condições diferentes quanto a sequência de movimentos, autocontrolado (LIVRE) e externamente controlado (DET). Os participantes deveriam tocar seis sensores sequencialmente, o último coincidentemente à chegada de um estímulo visual (tarefa de "timing"). Na aquisição, os participantes do grupo DET deveriam tocar os sensores numa sequência determinada, enquanto os do grupo LIVRE poderiam tocar os sensores em qualquer ordem (exceto o último, que foi o mesmo para ambos os grupos). Apesar de nenhuma diferença ter sido encontrada em relação ao número de tentativas necessárias ao alcance do desempenho critério na aquisição, o grupo LIVRE apresentou pior desempenho na transferência comparado ao grupo DET, indicando que ter controle sobre a sequência de movimentos que precede a coincidência prejudica a aprendizagem da habilidade

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of self-controlling a movement sequence on learning a coincident timing task. Thirty young adults (age = 23± 5.5 years) with no previous experience with the task were randomly assigned into two groups with different movement sequence conditions, self-controlled (FREE) and externally controlled (DET). Participants were required to tap six sensors sequentially, the last one coinciding with the arrival of a visual stimulus (timing task). On acquisition, participants in the DET group had to tap the sensors in a determined sequence, while those in the FREE group were allowed to tap the sensors in any order (except for the last one, which was the same for both groups). While no difference was found regarding the number of trials needed to reach the performance criterion in acquisition, the group FREE showed higher timing errors in transfer compared to the group DET, indicating that self-controlling the movement sequence that precedes the coincidence impairs the learning of the motor skill

Prior knowledge of final testing improves sensorimotor learning through self-scheduled practice.

The elaboration of learning strategies has been considered a key factor to explain sensorimotor learning gains obtained in self-scheduled practice conditions. Nevertheless, the effect of prior knowledge of the testing context (i.e., the learning goal) on that process has been neglected. This study sought to determine whether: (a) learners in a self-controlled condition make different choices contingent on having or not having a learning goal; (b) providing a learning goal would modify the effects of a self-controlled practice condition, and (c) the effect of providing a learning goal would be due to the augmented cognitive effort or to the practice schedule resulting from the learning strategies. The results show that prior knowledge of a variable testing context affects the elaboration of learning strategies and improves skill acquisition in a self-scheduled practice condition. Furthermore, learning gains can be attributed to the self-imposed practice schedule resulting from the learning strategies, and not to the process of elaborating them.

Assessment of beginners' front-crawl stroke efficiency.

Efficiency in front-crawl stroke has been inferred primarily by means of the analysis of arm actions, specifically, stroke frequency and stroke length. The objective of the present study was to investigate whether swimming efficiency could be better assessed in children still learning the front-crawl stroke by analyzing the movement pattern as a whole. Forty-two children enrolled in private swimming programs volunteered to participate in the study. The task consisted of swimming 30 m as fast as possible. Three experts analyzed the movement pattern of the participants using a checklist. Both stroke frequency and stroke length were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the time taken to swim and both the stroke frequency and stroke length were not significant, but the total and components of the checklist scores were. Results indicate that the swimming efficiency of children learning the front-crawl stroke can be better assessed by analyzing their whole movement pattern.

Olhares distintos sobre a noção de estabilidade e mudança no desempenho da coordenação motora grossa / Distinct views on the notion of stability and change in the performance of gross motor coordination / Ángulos diferentes sobre el concepto de estabilidad y cambio en el rendimiento de la coordinación motora gruesa

Estudos sobre coordenação motora grossa (CMG) de crianças focam na descrição dos valores normativos em razão da idade e sexo. Poucos analisam a dinâmica da mudança do desempenho de cada criança em relação ao seu grupo ao longo do tempo. O objetivo do presente estudo foi estimar a estabilidade das diferenças interindividuais na mudança intraindividual da CMG ao longo de 18 meses. Participaram do estudo 120 escolares de sete anos de idade da cidade de Muzambinho - MG. Foram realizadas quatro coletas com intervalos de seis meses. A CMG foi avaliada pelas provas do KTK. Os valores médios apresentaram incrementos em todas as provas, diferindo entre gênero apenas para o equilíbrio à retaguarda. Os resultados da correlação entre o desempenho inicial e a mudança ao longo do tempo indicaram uma forte heterogeneidade. Os resultados da estabilidade se mostraram fracos, os quais foram discutidos em relação a diferentes trajetórias do desenvolvimento da CMG.

Studies about gross motor coordination in children (GMC) focus on the description of normative values derived from age and sex, and few analyzed the dynamics of change of each child within its group. The goal of the present study is estimate the stability of intra-individual change over inter-individual differences over eighteen months. One hundred and twenty students with seven years old in the city of Muzambinho - MG participated in the study. Data was collected four times, with a six-month interval between each assessment. GMC was evaluated through KTK test battery. Mean values for all tests increased over time, with differences between sex for equilibrium test. The correlation values between initial performance and improvements over eighteen months indicated high heterogeneity. Results of stability estimates were weak for tests. These results were discussed about different trajectories in the development of motor coordination.

Las investigaciones sobre la coordinación motora gruesa (GMC) de niños se centran en la descripción de los valores normativos basados en la edad y en el sexo, y pocos estudios analizan la dinámica de cambio en el desempeño de cada niño en relación a su grupo al largo del tiempo. El objetivo de este estudio fue estimar la estabilidad de las diferencias interindividuales en el cambio interindividual de la CMG durante dieciocho meses. Participaron de la investigación 120 estudiantes de siete años de edad de la ciudad de Muzambinho - MG. Cuatro muestras fueron tomadas a intervalos de seis meses. La CMG se evaluó mediante las pruebas del KTK. Los valores medios mostraron aumentos en todas las pruebas, defiriendo entre géneros sólo para el equilibrio a la retaguardia. Los resultados de la correlación entre el rendimiento inicial y el cambio a lo largo del tiempo indicaron una fuerte heterogeneidad. Los resultados de la estabilidad se mostraron débiles. Estos resultados se discuten en términos de diferentes trayectorias de desarrollo de la CMG.

O estudo da demonstração em aprendizagem motora: estado da arte, desafios e perspectivas / The study of demonstration in motor learning: state of the art, challenges, and perspectives

O objetivo deste artigo é realizar uma revisão de literatura sobre a demonstração, uma importante fonte de informação no processo de aquisição de habilidades motoras, buscando apresentar o estado da arte, os principais desafios e algumas perspectivas de pesquisa. A demonstração tem sido investigada sob diferentes bases teóricas. A primeira delas é a teoria de aprendizagem social de Bandura, na qual foram apresentadas proposições acerca de como a informação observada é processada pelo aprendiz. As pesquisas mais recentes têm procurado elucidar a natureza da informação observada e se fundamentam em duas abordagens teóricas: a motora e a da ação. Os resultados de pesquisas com base na teoria de Bandura mostram que, no ato da aprendizagem por observação, as características do modelo, do aprendiz, da demonstração e da habilidade motora potencializam diferentemente os subprocessos relacionados à formação de referência da ação. Já os estudos que têm investigado a natureza da informação apresentam avanços em ambas as abordagens teóricas, porém em ritmo lento. Para que novos avanços ocorram, sugere-se um intercâmbio metodológico entre as abordagens e a realização de investigações em que o aprendiz tenha maior controle sobre a solicitação e o uso da demonstração.

The aim of this study was to review the literature regarding demonstration as an important information source for the acquisition of motor skills. State of the art, main research challenges and some research perspectives are presented. Different theoretical bases have been used for the investigation of demonstration. The first is Bandura's social learning theory, in which proposals of how the observed information is processed by the learner are presented. Recent studies have tried to identify the nature of the observed information based on two theoretical models: motor and action approaches. Research findings based on Bandura's theory show that, during the process of observational learning, factors such as characteristics of the model, learner, demonstration, and motor skill differently affect the sub-processes related to the formation of the guide of action. On the other hand, studies investigating the nature of the information have shown advances in both theoretical approaches, but at a slower pace. For further developments to occur, we suggest a methodological exchange between the two theoretical approaches and investigations in which the learner has greater control over the request and use of demonstration.

Number of options in a movement sequence affects learners' behavior in a self-controlled practice condition.

Self-controlling practice implies a process of decision making, which suggests that the options in a self-controlled practice condition could affect learners. The number of task components with no fixed position in a movement sequence may affect the way learners self-control their practice. A 200-cm coincident timing track with 90 light-emitting diodes (LEDs)--the first and the last LEDs being the warning and the target lights, respectively--was set so that the apparent speed of the light along the track was 1.33 m/sec. Participants were required to touch six sensors sequentially, the last one coincidently with the lighting of the target light (timing task). Group 1 (n = 55) had only one constraint, and were instructed to touch the sensors in any order, except for the last sensor which had to be the one positioned close to the target light. Group 2 (n = 53) had three constraints: the first two and the last sensor to be touched. Both groups practiced the task until timing error was less than 30 msec. on three consecutive trials. There were no statistically significant differences between groups in the number of trials needed to reach the performance criterion, but (a) participants in Group 2 created fewer sequences compared to Group 1, and (b) were more likely to use the same sequence throughout the learning process. The number of options for a movement sequence affected the way learners self-controlled their practice, but had no effect on the amount of practice to reach criterion performance.

Liberdade de escolha do aprendiz no processo adaptativo em aprendizagem motora / Learner freedon of choice on adaptive process in motor learning

O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar o efeito do grau de liberdade de escolha, oferecidodurante a estabilização de uma habilidade motora, no processo de adaptação a uma modificação efetorana tarefa. Participaram do estudo 48 voluntários, com média de idade de 21 (± 5,6) anos, de ambos osgêneros, que foram distribuídos aleatoriamente em três grupos relacionados ao grau de liberdade deescolha oferecido: alto (ALT), intermediário (MED) e sem liberdade de escolha (SEM). Foi utilizada umatarefa complexa de “timing” coincidente, na qual o participante deveria tocar seis sensores de formaque o último toque coincidisse com a chegada de um estímulo visual. O experimento consistiu de duasfases, quais sejam, estabilização e adaptação. No início da fase de adaptação, a modificação efetora datarefa gerou perturbação aos três grupos, uma vez que foi verificado aumento dos erros de execução equeda na precisão (erro absoluto) e consistência (erro variável) do desempenho. Apesar dos três gruposterem apresentado melhora do desempenho ao longo da fase de adaptação, o grupo SEM apresentouindicativos de adaptação menos eficiente. Assim, os resultados apontam que, diante de uma modificaçãoefetora da tarefa, a liberdade na escolha da resposta foi benéfica para a adaptação independentementedo grau.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of freedom of choice, when offered during thestabilization of a motor skill, on the adaptation process involving a motor task modification. Forty eightvolunteers of both genders, with average age of 21 years (± 5,6), were randomly divided in three groupsaccording to freedom of choice degree: high (ALT), intermediate (MED) and without freedom of choice(SEM). A complex coincident timing task was used. Each participant was requested to touch six responsekeys, trying to hit the last one in coincidence with a visual stimulus. The experiment consisted of twophases, namely stabilization and adaptation. In the beginning of the adaptation phase, the motor taskmodification perturbed all three groups, as an increase in execution errors and a decrease of bothprecision (absolute error) and consistency (variable error) of the performance was verified. Although allthree groups improved their performance during the adaptation phase, the SEM group showed signs ofa less efficient adaptation. Thus, the findings indicate that, as a result of a motor task modification, thefreedom in response choice was beneficial to adaptation irrespective of degree.