Electrical vagus nerve stimulation decreases food consumption and weight gain in rats fed a high-fat diet.

There is growing evidence that vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) has a suppressive effect on both short- and long-term feeding in animal models. We previously showed that long-term VNS (102 days) with low-frequency electrical impulses (0.05 Hz) decreased food intake and body weight in rats. In the present study, we investigated the effect of high frequency (10 Hz) VNS on feeding behavior and appetite in rats fed a high-fat diet; peptide secretion and other parameters were assessed as well. Adult male Wistar rats were each implanted subcutaneously with a microstimulator (MS) and fed a high-fat diet throughout the entire study period (42 days). The left vagus nerve was stimulated by rectangular electrical pulses (10 ms, 200 mV, 10 Hz, 12 h a day) generated by the MS. Body weight and food intake were measured each morning. At the end of the experimental period, animals were euthanized and blood samples were taken. Serum levels of ghrelin, leptin and nesfatin-1 were assessed using radioimmunoassays. Adipose tissue content was evaluated by weighing epididymal fat pads, which were incised at the time of sacrifice. To determine whether VNS activated the food-related areas of the brain, neuronal c-Fos induction in the nuclei of the solitary tract (NTS) was assessed. Chronic vagus nerve stimulation significantly decreased food intake, body weight gain and epididymal fat pad weight in animals that received VNS compared with control animals. Significant neuronal responses in the NTS were observed following VNS. Finally, serum concentrations of ghrelin were increased, while serum levels of leptin were decreased. Although not significant, serum nesfatin-1 levels were also elevated. These results support the theory that VNS leads to reductions in food intake, body weight gain and adipose tissue by increasing brain satiety signals conducted through the vagal afferents. VNS also evoked a feed-related hormonal response, including elevated blood concentrations of nesfatin-1.

Physiological and morphological effects of long-term vagal stimulation in diet induced obesity in rats.

Some previous studies have shown suppressive effect of the vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) on long - term feeding regulation in rats. We assessed body weight, interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC), myenteric plexus neurons, mast cells in the stomach, duodenum and colon and c-Fos expression in nodose vagal ganglia in the rats with VNS. Male Wistar rats were implanted with microchip (MC) and kept during the whole study (100 days) on high calorie diet. Left vagal nerve was stimulated by electrical pulses (10ms, 200mV, 0.05Hz) generated by MC. After finishing the experiments tissue samples (stomach, duodenum, colon and nodosal vagal ganglia) were taken. Mast cells were toluidine blue stained and counted in mucosa, muscularis externa and serosa. For immunostaining, antibodies for ICC (CD117), myenteric plexus neurons (PGP9.5) and c-Fos were used. Positive cells were assessed by image analysis. Chronic microchip vagal stimulation significantly decreased epididymal fat pad weight, meal size with effect on decreased weight gain in VNS rat. VNS significantly increased mast cells number in all examined parts of the gastrointestinal wall, mainly in the muscularis. There were no significant differences in ICC and myenteric plexus neurons between VNS and control. Expression of c-Fos in nodosal ganglia was higher in VNS group. The effects observed during long-term VNS concern predominantly mast cells. These data support the theory that VNS can increase vagal afferent satiety signals leading to reduced food intake and body weight gain and mast cells are involved in this process.

The role of sensory C-fibers in response of vagal afferent stimulation by gastric distension in rats with experimental chronic gastric ulcer.

There is growing evidence that gastric vagal afferent input may contribute to the altered sensations associated with gastrointestinal disorders. The aim of our study was to evaluate gastric vagal afferents (VA) activity in rats with experimental gastric ulcer and ulcer healing. The study was carried out on rats with gastric ulcer (GU), including, a group with perivagal capsaicin pretreatment (CAP), a group with capsaicin administration in gastric ulcer (CAP+GU) animals and control rats. In all rats electrical VA activity was recorded and analysed. In GU rats recordings were carried out in chronic ulcer and ulcer healing. In GU and CAP+GU groups gastric balloon distensions with vagal recording was performed on 3(rd) day after ulcer induction. Usually, experimental GU healed spontaneously within 2 weeks. Three days after acetic acid application when GU fully develop, the frequency of the basal VA activity was almost 3-times higher than in the control intact rats and remained elevayed until 4(th) week after ulcer induction. VA response to gastric distension increased concomitantly with increased balloon volume in both GU and control animals, but it was several times higher in GU rats. Perivagal capsaicin application decreased the frequency of spontaneous VA activity and decreased the response of VA to gastric distension. In CAP+GU, spontaneous activity as well as the response to gastric distension were higher than in CAP rats. Our study shows that GU induced inflammatory changes increase sensitivity of gastric VA. Capsaicin-sensitive vagal afferent fibers may play some role in this phenomenon. Peripheral sensitization of VA persists even when gastric ulcer is completely healed.

Prostaglandins and interleukin-1beta in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal response to systemic phenylephrine under basal and stress conditions.

We investigated the role of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and prostaglandins (PG) in the alpha(1)-adrenergic agonist, phenylephrine-induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) responses under basal and social stress conditions. Male Wistar rats, either control or exposed to crowding stress for 7 days prior to treatment, were used in these experiments. All compounds were injected i.p. Cyclooxygenase COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitors, piroxicam and compound NS-398, IL-1beta and IL-1beta receptor antagonist (IL-1betaRA) were injected 15 min before phenylephrine. Plasma ACTH and serum corticosterone levels were measured 1 h after phenylephrine or IL-1beta injection. Phenylephrine, in respective higher dose administered systemically (0.4 mg/kg i.p.) was almost equally effective as given i.c.v. (30 microg) in stimulating ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Likewise, the extent of the involvement of PG generated by COX-1 and COX-2 in the phenylephrine-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion was similar after systemic or i.c.v. treatment under both resting and stress conditions. Piroxicam, stronger than compound NS-398, reduced the i.p. phenylephrine-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion. IL-1beta receptor antagonist (50 microg/kg i.p.) did not significantly affect the inhibitory action of piroxicam on the i.p. phenylephrine-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion in control rats, but significantly enhanced the inhibition evoked by piroxicam in stressed rats. IL-1beta (2.5 microg/kg i.p.) significantly increased ACTH and corticosterone secretion under basal conditions. Crowding stress for 7 days markedly impaired the IL-1beta-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion. The mechanism of the stimulatory action of i.p. IL-1beta, which does not cross the blood-brain barrier, may comprise both central and peripheral components of the HPA axis. These results suggest that under basal conditions IL-1beta is not markedly involved in the alpha(1)-adrenergic agonist-induced stimulation of the HPA axis activity. During social crowding stress IL-1beta and prostaglandins are significantly involved in this stimulation.

Nitric oxide and prostaglandins in the clenbuterol-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion.

The present study was designed to determine the involvement of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandins (PG) in the stimulatory action of clenbuterol, a selective beta(2)-adrenergic receptor agonist on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis under basal and social crowding stress conditions. Clenbuterol given i.c.v. (10 microg) or i.p. (0.2 mg/kg) considerably increased ACTH and corticosterone secretion. A selective beta(2)-receptor antagonist compound ICI 118551 and non-selective beta-receptor antagonist propranolol given by either route reduced the stimulatory action of clenbuterol. Crowding stress (21 rats in a cage for 7) for 3-7 days significantly reduced the i.c.v. clenbuterol-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion and i.p. clenbuterol-elicited ACTH secretion. L-NAME, mainly endothelial nitric oxide synthase (NOS) blocker, stronger than L-NNA, a neuronal NOS blocker, reduced the clenbuterol-evoked ACTH and corticosterone secretion in control rats but did not significantly alter this secretion already reduced by crowding stress. Piroxicam, predominantly constitutive cyclooxygenase (COX-1) inhibitor, given i.p. significantly diminished the i.p. clenbuterol-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion in control rats and tended to reverse the reduction of ACTH secretion by crowding stress. These results indicate that clenbuterol, a selective beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonist, is much stronger stimulator of the HPA axis than isoprenaline, a non-selective beta-receptor agonist. Social crowding stress reduces to a larger extent the HPA response to beta(2)-receptor stimulation. Likewise, in the HPA axis stimulation via beta(2)-adrenoceptors endogenous NO and prostaglandins are significantly involved. Beta2-adrenoceptor is a dominant functional subtype of beta-receptor in the stimulatory and modulatory signals regulating the HPA axis activity under basal and social stress conditions.

Dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system activity is responsible for gastric myoelectric disturbances in the irritable bowel syndrome patients.

The pathogenesis of the irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is still unsolved. Lately most attention has been focused on visceral hypersensitivity related to dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in the ANS activity and gastric motility in constipation-predominant IBS patients using the heart rate variability (HRV) and gastric myoelectric activity (EGG) recording. 23 patients (45+/-13 yrs) matching Manning criteria and 30 healthy volunteers (47+/-5 yrs) participated in the study. EGG and HRV in fasted and fed subjects with fasted serum catecholamine levels were measured in both groups. Fasting IBS pts showed gastric dysrrhythmia (29+/-14% vs. 11+/-7%), DP was 128.860 +/- 112.000 vs. 46.000+/- 23.200microV2, DF 2.37+/-0.8 vs. 2.9+/-0.2cpm. Feeding (300 kcal) improved dysrrhythmia to 20+/-13% vs. 8+/-5%, DP decreased to 74.500+/-57.720 vs. 165.600+/-89.000microV(2) and DF increased to 2.53+/-0.7 vs. 3.2+/-0.3cpm. In fasted and fed IBS pts SWC (channels 3-4) was about 60+/-11 vs. 84+/-8% and 68+/-14 vs. 92+/-8% respectively. In IBS pts resting HRV parameters were lower (LF - 650.3 vs. 811.6 ms2; HF - 508.8 vs. 854.6 ms2); with higher LF/HF ratio in IBS patients (1.52 vs. 1.2). The serum fasting level of adrenaline and noradrenaline in IBS pts were higher 1.28+/-0.06 vs. 0.65+/-0.05 nmol/L, and 3.54+/-1.2 vs. 2.89+/- 08 nmol/L, p<0.05 respectively. Increased sympathetic drive in IBS pts reflected by high catecholamine levels and LH/HF ratio is responsible for gastric dysrrhythmias and low DF and coupling. Meal has negligible effect on EGG parameters improvement. The ANS dysfunction observed in IBS patients is most probably responsible for disturbances in gastric myoelectric activity presented as gastric dysrrhythmias resulting in gastric emptying delay and dyspeptic symptoms.

Effect of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy and cholinergic agents in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity.

In the present study, we examined whether the vagus nerve is involved in mediating the stimulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by cholinergic muscarinic and nicotinic agonists, carbachol and nicotine. The site of HPA axis muscarinic stimulation was determined using peripheral (i.p.) and intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of carbachol, atropine sulphate (AtrS) and atropine hydrobromide (AtrBr). The i.p. carbachol-(0.5 mg/kg)-induced corticosterone response was significantly reduced by i.p. pretreatment with AtrBr (0.1 mg/kg), but was not diminished by i.c.v. AtrS (0.1 mug). The increase in corticosterone secretion induced by i.c.v. carbachol (2 microg) was totally abolished by i.c.v. pretreatment with AtrS (0.1 microg) but was not altered by i.p. AtrBr. Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy performed 2 weeks earlier substantially decreased the i.p. carbachol (0.2 mg/kg)-induced ACTH response and markedly augmented ACTH and corticosterone response to a higher dose of carbachol (0.5 mg/kg) in comparison with the responses in sham operated rats. Vagotomy abolished the stimulatory effect of i.p. nicotine in a low dose (1 mg/kg) on ACTH and corticosterone secretion; the ACTH response to higher dose (2.5 mg/kg) was considerably reduced, while corticosterone response remained unaffected. These results suggest that carbachol given i.c.v. evokes considerable corticosterone response by stimulation of central cholinergic muscarinic receptors. A major part of the i.p. carbachol-induced corticosterone secretion results from peripheral cholinergic muscarinic receptor stimulation. Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy moderately intensified the carbachol-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Vagotomy significantly reduced the nicotine-induced ACTH secretion, possibly by the involvement of vagal afferents. The nicotine-induced corticosterone secretion is not exclusively regulated by circulating ACTH but by various intra-adrenal regulatory components.

Effect of long-term vagal stimulation on food intake and body weight during diet induced obesity in rats.

Regulation of food intake and body weight is accomplished by several mechanisms. CNS receives information from periphery and modifies food intake mainly by vagal nerves that provide the major neuroanatomical link between gastrointestinal sites stimulated during food intake and CNS sites that control feeding behavior and metabolism. Gastric mechanoreceptors and jejunal chemoreceptors activated by food or vagal nerve stimulation (VNS), which mimic the physiological input, suppress feeding within short-term regulation. Our research was aimed on determination the role of electrical VNS in long-term control of food intake and body weight in diet induced obesity fed rats. Food intake, body weight and epididymal fat pad were assessed in male Wistar rats divided into three groups (controls vs. VNS). Rats were implanted with microchip and kept during the whole study (100 days) on diet induced obesity. Vagal nerve was stimulated by electrical rectangular pulses duration 10 ms, amplitude 200 mV, frequency 0.05 Hz generated by microchip. In control group surgery produced no significant changes in meal size and body weight gain as compared to intact group. In contrast, significantly decreased epididymal fat pad weight, decreased meal size with effect on decreased weight gain was observed in VNS rats. Data support theory that VNS can increase vagal afferent signal conduct to CNS and mimics the satiety signals leading to reduce food intake and body weight gain.

The involvement of nitric oxide and prostaglandins in the cholinergic stimulation of hypothalamie-pituitary-adrenal response during crowding stress.

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of social crowding stress and significance of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandins (PG) generated by constitutive and inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX) in the stimulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by cholinergic muscarinic receptor agonist carbachol. Inhibitors of neuronal NOS (nNOS) L-NNA, general NOS L-NAME and inducible NOS (iNOS) aminoguanidine, as well as inhibitors of COX-1, piroxicam, and COX-2, compound NS-398 were administered 15 min prior to carbachol to control or crowded rats (24 rats in cage for 7, during 3 and 7 days). In stressed rats L-NAME, L-NNA and aminoguanidine significantly intensified the carbachol-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion, like in control rats. Piroxicam, markedly decreased the carbachol-induced ACTH and corticosterone response under either basal or stress conditions. Compound NS-398 did not markedly alter the carbachol-induced HPA response in control and stressed rats. Crowding stress (3 days) significantly impaired the i.c.v. prostaglandin E(2)-induced ACTH response. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) receptor antagonists, alpha-helical CRH [9-14], given i.c.v. did not alter the PGE(2)-evoked corticosterone response in either control or stressed rats, indicating that hypothalamic CRH is not involved in the PGE(2)-induced central stimulation of HPA axis. In control rats L-NAME considerably enhanced, while L-arginine, a physiological NOS substrate, abolished the PGE(2)-induced ACTH and corticosterone response. In stressed rats this NOS blocker significantly increased and L-Arg reduced the stimulatory effect of PGE(2) on ACTH and corticosterone secretion. The carbachol-induced corticosterone response was significantly increased by pretreatment with nNOS inhibitor L-NNA and was considerably reduced by indomethacin, a general COX inhibitor. Pretreatment with both antagonists left the carbachol-induced corticosterone level unchanged, suggesting an independent and reciprocal effect of NO and PG in the cholinergic stimulation of pituitary-adrenocortical response. These results indicate that in the stimulatory action of muscarinic agonist, carbachol, NO is an inhibitory transmitter under basal and crowding stress conditions. This psychosocial stress does not functionally affect the NOS/NO systems. Prostaglandins are involved in the cholinergic muscarinic-induced stimulation of HPA response to a significant extent in non-stressed rats. PGE(2) may be involved in the carbachol-elicited HPA response under basal and stress conditions. Prostaglandins released in response to muscarinic stimulation did not evoke the hypothalamic CRH mediation. NO significantly impairs and PG stimulates the carbachol-induced HPA response in rats under basal and social stress conditions.

Nitric oxide and prostaglandin systems in the stimulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by neurotransmitters and neurohormones.

The review presents our results on the regulatory role of prostaglandins (PG) and nitric oxide (NO) in the activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by cholinergic, adrenergic and histaminergic systems and by neurohormones: corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) under basal conditions. The synthesis of endogenous PG or NO was inhibited by non-selective and selective cyclooxygenase (COX) antagonists and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) blockers given 15 min before the respective receptor agonist and HPA axis activity was assessed 1 h later by measuring plasma ACTH and serum corticosterone levels. The muscarinic agent - carbachol-induced HPA response was considerably supressed by piroxicam, a predominantly constitutive cyclooxygenase (COX-1) inhibitor and significantly diminished by indomethacin, a non-selective COX blocker, but was unaffected by compound NS-398, an inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) antagonist. A non-selective NOS antagonist L-NAME and neuronal NOS blocker L-NNA significantly intensified the carbachol-induced corticosterone secretion. The nicotine-induced increase in ACTH and corticosterone response was significantly supressed by piroxicam, and diminished by indomethacin, but was significantly augmented by L-NAME and L-NNA. The inhibition of PG synthesis by indomethacin totally abolished or reversed the increase of nicotine-induced hormone responses to both NOS blockers. The i.c.v. phenylephrine, an alpha(1)-adrenergic receptor agonist - evoked HPA response was significantly impaired by piroxicam and compound NS-398 and more potently reduced by L-NAME. The i.c.v. clonidine, an alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist - elicited HPA response was also considerably decreased by piroxicam, compound NS-398 and L-NAME. By contrast, the stimulatory effect of i.c.v. isoprenaline, a non-selective beta-adrenergic agonist, was not altered by either COX or NOS inhibitors. The i.c.v. histamine- and HTMT, a histamine H(1)-agonist-induced ACTH and corticosterone response were significantly diminished by piroxicam and indomethacin, respectively. Compound NS-398, did not markedly alter the HPA response to HTMT or amthamine, a histamine H(2) receptor agonist. Inhibition of endogenous NO synthesis by a neuronal NOS inhibitor 7-nitroindazole markedly enhanced the histamine-induced hormone secretion, abolished the HTMT-induced response and did not substantially alter the amthamine-evoked ACTH and corticosterone secretion. COX blockers did not significantly affect the CRH-induced HPA response and the inhibition of NO synthesis by L-NNA markedly intensified ACTH response. The vasopressin-stimulated increase in HPA response, was considerably reduced by the inhibition of PG synthesis by both COX antagonists while inhibition of NO synthesis by NOS blockers greatly enhanced this response. The involvement of PG and NO in the neurohormonal regulation of HPA activity depends mainly on greatly complex and tightly regulated mechanisms at the level of second messengers IP(3) and adenylyl cyclase systems.

Effect of cyclooxygenase inhibitors on the CRH-induced pituitary-adrenocortical activity during crowding stress.

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of social stress and significance of prostaglandins (PG) generated by constitutive and inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) in the stimulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) under basal and social crowding stress conditions. The stressed rats were crowded in groups of 24 to a cage for 3 or 7 days, whereas the control animals were haused in groups of 7 to a cage of the same size. The activity of HPA axis was determined by measuring plasma ACTH and serum corticosterone levels 1 h after i.p. CRH administration. Inhibitors of COX-1, piroxicam (0.2, 2.0, and 5.0 mg/kg), and COX-2, compound NS-398 (0.2 and 2.0 mg/kg), were administered i.p. 15 min prior to CRH (0.1 microg/kg i.p.) to control or crowded rats. The obtained results indicate that social stress for 3 and 7 days markedly intensifies the stimulatory action of CRH on ACTH secretion. Neither piroxicam nor NS-398 induce any significant effect on the CRH-elicited ACTH and corticosterone secretion in non-stressed or crowded rats. Therefore, PG generated by COX-1 or COX-2 do not participate to a significant extent in the stimulation of HPA axis by CRH under either basal conditions or during crowding stress. These results also indicate that the stimulatory action of CRH on ACTH secretion is not only completely resistant to desensitization but is sensitized during social crowding stress. The results contrast with a significant involvement of PG in the vasopressin-induced stimulation of HPA response during crowding stress.

Influence of cyclooxygenase inhibitors on the central histaminergic stimulations of hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis.

Brain histamine participates in central regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Endogenous prostaglandins modulate signal transduction of different neurotransmitters involved in activation of HPA axis. In the present experiment we investigated whether endogenous prostaglandins are involved in the stimulation of ACTH and corticosterone secretion by histaminergic systems in the rat brain. Histamine (50 microg), histamine-trifluoromethyl-toluidine derivative (HTMT, 75microg) a selective and potent H(1)-receptor agonist, and amthamine (50 microg) a H(2)-receptor agonist given intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) to non-anesthetized rats considerably increased ACTH and corticosterone secretion 1h after administration. A non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin (2 mg/kg i.p. or 10 microg i.c.v.), piroxicam (0.02 and 0.2 microg i.c.v.) a more potent antagonist of constitutive cyclooxygenase (COX-1) and compound NS-398 (0.1 and 1.0 microg i.c.v.), a selective inhibitor of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) were given 15 min before histamine and histamine receptor agonists. One hour after the last injection trunk blood from decapitated rats was collected for hormones determination. The histamine-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion was significantly diminished by piroxicam and was not markedly altered by indomethacin and compound NS-398. The HTMT-elicited increase in ACTH and corticosterone secretion was significantly prevented by indomethacin and was not affected by piroxicam or compound NS-398. The amthamine-evoked increase in ACTH and corticosterone secretion was not markedly influenced by any cyclooxygenase blocker applied in the present experiment. These results indicate that the histamine H(1)-receptor transmitted central stimulation of the HPA axis is considerably mediated by prostaglandins generated by consititutive cyclooxygenase, whereas stimulation transmitted via H(2)-receptor does not significantly depend on endogenous prostaglandins mediation.

Effect of constitutive- and inducible-cyclooxygenase in the carbachol-induced pituitary-adrenocortical response during social stress.

Acetylcholine potently stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Cholinergic receptor agonist carbachol, given intraperitoneally (i.p.) or into the lateral cerebral ventricle (i.c.v.) to non-anesthetized rats acts via multiple pathways to stimulate the HPA axis. The present study sought to determine 1) the functional selectivity of carbachol for cholinergic muscarinic and/or nicotinic receptors involved in the stimulation of HPA axis; 2) the involvement of prostaglandins (PGs) generated by constitutive and inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) in the carbachol-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion in non-stressed rats and animals exposed to social crowding stress for 7 days (24 per a cage for 6). Carbachol was given i.c.v. or i.p. and cholinergic receptor antagonists or cyclooxygenase isoenzyme antagonists were given by the same routes 15 min earlier. One hour after the last injection trunk blood was taken for ACTH and corticosterone determinations. Atropine (0.1 microg i.c.v.), a cholinergic receptor antagonist, totally abolished the carbachol (2 microg i.c.v.)-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion and mecamylamine (20 microg i.c.v.), a selective nicotinic receptor antagonist, did not affect this secretion. This finding indicates that carbachol functions as a selective central cholinergic muscarinic receptor agonist for the HPA axis stimulation. Crowding stress significantly diminished the carbachol (0.2 mg/kg i.p.)-induced plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels measured 1 hr after administration. Pretreatment with indomethacin (2 mg/kg i.p.), a non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitor, significantly diminished the ACTH and corticosterone responses to carbachol (0.2 mg/kg i.p.) in control rats and moderately decreased these responses in stressed rats. Piroxicam (0.2 and 2.0 mg/kg i.p.), a COX-1 inhibitor, considerably impaired the carbachol-induced ACTH and corticosterone responses in control rats and markedly diminished these responses in stressed rats. A selective COX-2 blocker, compound NS-398 (0.2 and 2.0 mg/kg i.p.), substantially decreased the carbachol-induced hormones secretion in control rats but did not markedly alter this secretion in stressed rats. These results indicate that in the carbachol-induced HPA axis activation PGs generated by COX-1 are considerably and to a much greater extent involved than PGs generated by COX-2. Social stress markedly diminishes the mediation of PGs generated by COX-1 but PGs synthesized by COX-2 do not substantially participate in the carbachol-induced HPA response.

Effect of adrenergic antagonists and cyclooxygenase inhibitors on the nicotine-induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical activity.

Nicotine is a potent stimulus for the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Systemic nicotine acts via central mechanisms to stimulate by multiple pathways the release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary corticotrops and corticosterone from the adrenal cortex. Nicotine may stimulate indirectly the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, the site of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons which activates ACTH release. In the present studies an involvement of adrenergic system and prostaglandins synthesized by constitutive cyclooxygenase (COX-1) and inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) in the nicotine-induced HPA response in rats was investigated. Nicotine (2.5-5 mg/kg i.p.) significantly increased plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels measured 1 hr after administration. Adrenergic receptor antagonists or COX inhibitors were injected i.p. 15 min prior to nicotine and the rats were decapitated 1 hr after the last injection. Prazosin (0.01-0.1 mg/kg), an alpha1-adrenergic antagonist, significantly decreased the nicotine-evoked ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Yohimbine (0.1-1.0 mg/kg), an alpha2-adrenergic antagonist, moderately diminished ACTH response, and propranolol (0.1-10 mg/kg), a beta-adrenergic antagonist, did not significantly alter the nicotine-induced hormones secretion. Pretreatment with piroxicam (0.2-2.0 mg/kg), a COX-1 inhibitor, considerably impaired the nicotine-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Compound NS-398 (0.2-5.0 mg/kg), a selective COX-2 blocker did not markedly alter these hormones secretion, and indomethacin (2 mg/kg), a non-selective COX inhibitor significantly diminished ACTH response. These results indicate that systemic nicotine stimulates the HPA axis indirectly, and both adrenergic system and prostaglandins are significantly involved in this stimulation. Noradrenaline, stimulating postsynaptic alpha1-adrenergic receptors, and prostaglandins, synthesized by COX-1 isoenzyme, are of crucial significance in the nicotine-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion.

Involvement of prostaglandins in the nicotine-induced pituitary-adrenocortical response during social stress.

The present study examined the functional selectivity of nicotine for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the effect of social crowding stress on HPA response to nicotine and the involvement of prostaglandins synthesized by constitutive cyclooxygenase (COX-1) and inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) in the nicotine-induced HPA response in rats crowded (24 per a box instead 7) for 7 days. Nicotine (2.5-5.0 mg/kg i.p.) significantly increased plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels measured 1 h after administration. Mecamylamine (50 mg i.c.v.), a selective nicotinic receptor antagonist, atropine (0.1 mg/kg i.p.) a non-selective cholinergic receptor antagonist, or COX inhibitors were injected 15 min prior to nicotine and the rats were decapitated 1 h after the last injection. Mecamylamine abolished the nicotine-induced ACTH response and significantly diminished corticosterone response. Atropine did not alter ACTH response and modestly diminished corticosterone response to nicotine. Crowding stress significantly impaired the nicotine-evoked ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Pretreatment with piroxicam (0.2-2.0 mg/kg), a COX-1 inhibitor, considerably diminished the nicotine-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion in control and crowded rats. Compound NS-398 (0.2-5.0 mg/kg), a selective COX-2 blocker, did not markedly alter the nicotine-induced hormones secretion in either control or stressed rats. Indomethacin (2 mg/kg), a non-selective COX inhibitor diminished significantly, but to a lesser extent than piroxicam, the nicotine-stimulated ACTH and corticosterone response. These results indicate that systemic nicotine stimulates the HPA axis selectively via nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Chronic social stress significantly impairs the nicotine stimulated ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Prostaglandins, generated by COX-1- but not by COX-2- isoenzyme, are of crucial significance in the nicotine-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion in both control and stressed rats.

A single corticosterone pretreatment inhibits the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to adrenergic and cholinergic stimulation.

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether an increased plasma corticosterone or dexamethasone levels induced by a single corticosterone or dexamethasone injection to conscious rats affects the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) activity induced by adrenergic and cholinergic agonists. Male Wistar rats were pretreated subcutaneously (s.c.) with a single dose of dexamethasone (5 mg/kg) or corticosterone (25 mg/kg) 24 or 48 h before intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of adrenergic agonists: phenylephrine, an alpha1-adrenergic receptor agonist, clenbuterol, a beta2-adrenergic agonist and noradrenaline acting predominantly on alpha1-adrenoreceptors, and cholinergic agonists: carbachol, a predominant muscarinic receptor agonist and nicotine, a nicotinic receptor agonist. Dexamethasone profoundly decreased the resting ACTH levels in control rats and given 24 h before each of the stimulatory agonist abolished the adrenergic- and cholinergic agonists-induced ACTH and corticosterone responses. Pretreatment with corticosterone of control rats did not substantially alter the resting plasma ACTH and serum corticosterone levels measured 24 and 48 h later. A single pretreatment with corticosterone abolished or powerfully inhibited, perhaps by a feedback mechanism, the ACTH and corticosterone responses induced 24 and 48 h later by all adrenergic and cholinergic agonists used in this study. These results indicate that prolonged administration of corticosterone is not necessary to induce almost complete suppression of the HPA responsiveness to adrenergic or cholinergic stimulation. Chronic treatment with corticosteroids to achieve glucocorticoid receptors desensitization does not seem to be required.

Effect of social stress on COX-1 and COX-2-induced alterations in the adrenergic agonists-evoked hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the contribution of prostaglandins (PGs) synthesized by constitutive (COX-1) and inducible (COX-2) cyclooxygenase to stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by adrenergic receptor agonists in rats under social crowing stress 3 days, (21 per a cage for 6) animals. The effects of phenylephrine, clonidine and isoprenaline, an alpha1-, alpha2- and beta-adrenergic agonist, respectively, in the presence and absence of COX-1 inhibitor, piroxicam, and COX-2 inhibitor, compound NS-398, on ACTH and corticosterone secretion in stressed rats were compared with these effects in non-stressed animals. All drugs were given intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.), COX inhibitors 15 min before adrenergic agonists. Piroxicam (0.02 microg) and NS-398 (0.1 microg) significantly reduced the phenylephrine (30 microg) -induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion in both stressed and non-stressed rats. Piroxicam (0.02 microg) and NS-398 (0.01 microg) moderately decreased the clonidine (10 microg) -evoked hormone responses in control rats but did not alter these responses in stressed rats. Piroxicam (0.2 microg) and NS-398 (0.1 microg) moderately diminished the isoprenaline (20 microg) -evoked ACTH and corticosterone response in control rats, while in stressed rats these inhibitors did not significantly alter the isoprenaline-induced rise in ACTH and corticosterone secretion. These results indicate that in hypothalamic structures involved in the regulation of adrenergic agonists-induced HPA stimulation COX-2 is expressed under physiological synaptic activity. Social crowding stress does not alter the significant involvement of prostaglandins in the HPA response induced by stimulation of central alpha1-adrenergic receptors. Prostaglandins are of lesser importance in activation of the HPA axis by alpha2- and beta-adrenergic receptors under basal and social stress conditions.

Involvement of constitutive (COX-1) and inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) in the adrenergic-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion.

The involvement of prostaglandins synthesized by constitutive (COX-1) and inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) in central stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by adrenergic receptor agonists was investigated in conscious rats. COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitor, piroxicam (0.02 and 0.2 microg) and compound NS-398 (0.01 and 0.1 microg), respectively, were given intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) 15 min prior to i.c.v. adrenergic receptor agonists: phenylephrine (30 microg) and clonidine (10 microg), an alpha1- and alpha2-adrenergic agonist, and isoprenaline (20 microg) a non-selective beta-adrenergic agonist and clenbuterol (10 microg) a selective beta2-adrenergic agonist. Piroxicam and NS-398 considerably and dose-dependently reduced the phenylephrine-induced increase in ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Pretreatment with piroxicam and NS-398 markedly impaired the clonidine-evoked ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Piroxicam moderately diminished the isoprenaline-elicited increase in ACTH and corticosterone, while NS-398 did not markedly alter ACTH secretion. The clenbuterol-induced ACTH and corticosterone responses were considerably impaired by pretreatment with piroxicam, and slightly less potently by NS-398. These results indicate that in central structures involved in regulation of the HPA axis both constitutive and inducible cyclooxygenase are present under normal conditions in rats. These isoenzymes are significantly involved in the stimulatory signaling transduced by postsynaptic alpha1-adrenergic receptors and, to a lesser extent, by alpha2-adrenergic receptors. Both isoenzymes affect moderately the stimulatory action of a non-selective beta-adrenergic agonist on ACTH and corticosterone secretion. COX-1 participates considerably and COX-2 markedly in the potent stimulatory action of selective beta2-adrenergic receptors on HPA axis.

Involvement of nitric oxide in central histaminergic stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Brain histamine participates in central regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Endogenous nitric oxide (NO) modulates signal transduction of some neurotransmitters involved in activation of the HPA axis. In the present study we investigated whether endogenous NO and histaminergic systems in the rat brain interact in their regulation of ACTH and corticosterone secretion. Histamine (50 microg), histamine-trifluoromethyl-toluidide derivative (HTMT, 75 microg) a selective and potent H1-receptor agonist, and amthamine (75 microg) a H2-receptor agonist given intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) considerably increased ACTH and corticosterone secretion 1 h after administration. A potent and competitive inhibitor of rat brain neuronal NO synthase, (NOS), 7-nitroindazole (7-NI), given i.p. 15 min before histamine moderately increased the histamine-induced ACTH secretion and did not substantially alter the histamine-induced corticosterone secretion. Pretreatment with 7-NI totally abolished the HTMT-induced increase in ACTH and corticosterone secretion. The amthamine-evoked rise in ACTH secretion was moderately diminished and the amthamine-induced corticosterone secretion was not substantially altered by preatreatment with 7-NI. These results suggest that the histamine H -receptor transmited central stimulation of the HPA axis is considerably mediated by endogenous NO, whereas stimulation by histamine and via H2-receptor does not significantly depend on endogenous NO mediation.

Blockade of nitric oxide formation impairs adrenergic-induced ACTH and corticosterone secretion.

It has been suggested that adrenergic agents might modulate the L-arginine-NO pathway. Sympathomimetic agonists enhance the basal release of NO, and noradrenaline increases the synthesis of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the medial basal hypothalamus in vitro. In the present study possible involvement of NO in central stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by adrenergic agents was investigated in conscious rats. The nitric oxide synthase blocker N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME 2 and 10 microg) was administered intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) 15 min before the adrenergic agonist given by the same route; 1 h later the rats were decapitated. Plasma levels of ACTH and corticosterone were measured. L-NAME significantly diminished the ACTH and corticosterone response to phenylephrine (30 microg), an alpha1-adrenergic receptor agonist. These hormone responses to clonidine (10 microg), an alpha2-receptor agonist, were dose-dependently suppressed or totally abolished by L-NAME. A significant rise in the ACTH and corticosterone secretion induced by isoprenaline (10 microg), a beta-adrenergic receptor agonist, was only moderately diminished by pretreatment with L-NAME. These results indicate that NOS is considerably involved in central stimulation of the HPA axis by alpha1- and alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonists, and that NO mediates the stimulatory action of these agonists on ACTH and corticosterone secretion. The stimulation induced by beta-adrenergic receptors is only moderately affected by endogenous NO.