From Pathogen to Toxin: The Revolutionary Work of Dr. Sambhu Nath De in Understanding Cholera.

In the history of medical science and public health in India, the groundbreaking research on cholera toxin by Dr. Sambhu Nath De presents a pivotal moment. This review article dives into Dr. De's influential contributions to the understanding of cholera pathogenesis, his discovery of the cholera toxin, and its implications for the treatment and prevention of diseases. By defining the process via which vibrio cholera causes severe diarrhea and dehydration, Dr. De worked toward paving the way for the development of effective rehydration therapies and preventive strategies that have helped save innumerable lives all over the world. This article also reviews the more significant impact of Dr. De's findings in the field of public health and its shaping and use of modern approaches to infectious control. This article aims to honor the enduring legacy and contributions to public health reform by Dr. De.

Clinical Reasoning Skills Among Second-Phase Medical Students in West Bengal, India: An Exploratory Study.

Introduction Proper application of clinical reasoning skills is essential to reduce diagnostic and management errors. Explicit inclusion of training and assessment of clinical reasoning skills is the demand of time. The study intended to measure the clinical reasoning skills of second-phase undergraduate students in a medical college in West Bengal, India, and its distribution across several individual variables. Methods The clinical reasoning skills of 105 undergraduate medical students were assessed in a cross-sectional exploratory study using key feature questions (KFQs) with the partial credit scoring system. Six case vignettes aligned to the core competencies in the subject of pharmacology, pathology, and microbiology were designed and validated by the subject material experts for this purpose. The responses of the participants were collected through Google Forms (Google, Mountain View, CA) after obtaining written informed consent. The scores obtained in all KFQs were added and expressed in percentage of the maximum attainable score. Results The mean (±SD) clinical reasoning score of the participants was 42.5 (±12.6). Only 29.6% of respondents scored ≥ 50. Students with higher subjective economic status (p-value = 0.01) and perceived autonomy (p-value < 0.001) were more likely to have higher clinical reasoning scores. The marks obtained in previous summative examinations were significantly correlated with clinical reasoning scores. Conclusion Average score < 50.0 and inability to score ≥ 50.0 by more than two-thirds of the participants reflected the deficit in the clinical reasoning skills of second-phase MBBS students. The association of clinical reasoning skills with economic status, autonomy, and previous academic performances needs further exploration.

Jenner's Legacy: How Edward Jenner's Smallpox Vaccine Changed Public Health.

Edward Jenner who discovered immunology and the smallpox vaccine conducted a smallpox vaccination test in 1796, which is considered a landmark in the history of modern immunization. This review focuses on describing Jenner and his accomplishments highlighting his discovery as a shift in the approaches toward disease control and prevention as well as the basis for further eradicating smallpox globally. Jenner's use of cowpox to protect people from smallpox was a revolution from other essential procedures such as variolation. His vaccine demonstrated how immunization could be used to combat diseases, and over the years the idea began to be deployed to other vaccines and other diseases. Besides the given medical profession, the work of Jenner was relevant to the changes or even enhancements of health policies and health systems globally. His vaccine provided not only the means to arrest a wide disease that could easily eliminate many human beings but also initiated procedures of disease prevention and control. Another important type of immunity, herd immunity, which determines an approach to managing specific diseases in the present, as well as knowledge of the degree of protection provided by the antigen in terms of the overall immune status of a population, was also achieved based on the actions taken after Jenner's procedure. As our society searches for vaccines for emergent diseases to date, this review reveals that Jenner's accomplishments are still relevant. In this article, analyzing Jenner's approach and the role of society and science at the time, along with the consequences of his work, the reader sees how Jenner changed the world of public health and laid a foundation for today's vaccination. Such an approach allows considering the changes and evolution of the topic that Jenner studied and contributed to and how people fight infections today.

Pioneering Physician: Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell and the Path to Medical History.

Elizabeth Blackwell was a remarkable and courageous woman who made significant contributions to medicine, education, and the rights of women. Blackwell achieved significant milestones in the medical field by being the first female physician in America and the first woman to be listed on the United Kingdom medical register. Despite facing challenges, discrimination, and barriers, she founded the London School of Medicine and the New York Infirmary for Women and Children to provide better education and health benefits for women and children. She lived during a time when women were expected to stay in the home; yet, she went on to become a doctor and professor.

A Review of Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices and Their Challenges in India.

This review focuses on infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices in India, aiming to offer information on its trends, challenges, and opportunities for improvement. The overview starts by exploring the importance of IYCF practices and their results on child health, growth, and development. It delves into cultural norms, conventional practices, and local variations that impact feeding behaviors, acknowledging the range of nutritional habits across communities. The role of healthcare systems and community interventions in promoting the most desirable feeding practices is mentioned, addressing issues consisting of different breastfeeding practices, well-timed introduction of complementary meals, and micronutrient supplementation. By making this assessment, the goal of this review is to make healthcare professionals, policymakers, and researchers aware of the current trends of IYCF and its demanding situations, and regions for development in India. It gives an understanding of the improvement of strategies and interventions that can make contributions to the increase and improvement of infant and young child nutrients, thereby nurturing the Upcoming generations.

Developments and Trends of Immunization in India: A Narrative Review.

Immunization is a critical component of public health, and it undergoes various trends and developments over time. Immunization is considered one of humanity's most remarkable journeys. It has helped save countless lives and will help save more if the goals of the 2030 Immunization Agenda (IA2030) are achieved. India is home to one of the largest global immunization programs. Immunization trends refer to the patterns and changes in the development of vaccines, the use of vaccines, and vaccination programs within a nation. There have been various trends in vaccine development and immunization in India. Trends can be influenced by various factors, including vaccine coverage, new vaccines, vaccine hesitancy, advances in medical science, technological innovations, public-private partnerships, public health policies, and public awareness. India has the world's largest immunization program regarding the number of vaccinations delivered, the recipients, the geographic spread, and the human resources required. In this review, we give an overview of various trends in immunization in India dating from the ancient era. A search of the PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases from 1945 to February 2024 was done to conduct a narrative review. This review includes English-language publications. This narrative review was conducted to summarize the government of India's actions and strategies for immunization and vaccine development and also to trace the trends in immunization in India. It covers various vaccination programs of the Indian government and measures that were made to fight vaccine hesitancy and to enhance vaccination coverage such as developing vaccination roadmaps, scheduling vaccinations, utilizing digital health technology, monitoring vaccinations, and developing creative techniques. India has the world's largest Universal Immunization Program, vaccinating around 29 million pregnant women and 26.5 million infants annually. These trends reflect India's ongoing commitment to immunization as a component of public health policy and efforts to address existing and emerging health challenges.

Yellapragada Subbarow: A Pioneer in Biomedical Research and the Unsung Hero of Modern Medicine.

Yellapragada Subbarow, an often overlooked yet monumental figure in biomedical research, made groundbreaking contributions that have profoundly shaped modern medicine. Born in 1895 in Andhra Pradesh, India, Subbarow's journey from humble beginnings to a pioneering biochemist is a testament to his relentless determination and intellectual prowess. His discoveries, including the elucidation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the development of folic acid, and the introduction of methotrexate and tetracycline antibiotics, have had a lasting impact on various fields such as biochemistry, oncology, and infectious disease treatment. Despite his significant scientific achievements, Subbarow's name remains relatively obscure outside academic circles. This review highlights his pivotal contributions and explores the reasons behind his underrecognition. By examining his life's work, this article seeks to celebrate Subbarow's enduring legacy and advocate for greater recognition of his contributions to medical science. His story enriches our understanding of scientific progress and is an inspiring example of the profound impact of perseverance and innovation in advancing human health. Through this review, we hope to honor Subbarow's remarkable achievements and bring deserved attention to one of the unsung heroes of modern medicine.

Joseph William Bhore (1878-1960): The Architect Behind the Bhore Committee Legacy.

Sir Joseph William Bhore was a civil official from India. He pioneered the health survey and development committee, known as the Bhore Committee, which set the direction for India's public health facilities and investments. The chairmanship of the Health Survey and Development Committee, which the British colonial administration formed in 1943, is arguably the most well-known role Bhore has held. The committee was founded in 1943 and produced a thorough report in 1946. The committee's suggestions shaped India's health policy and planning and the course of the country's health care growth.

The Legacy of Sir Ronald Ross: From Malaria Research to Multifaceted Achievements.

Sir Ronald Ross (13th May 1857 - 16th September 1932), a British doctor, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine in 1902 for research on the spread of malaria. This article highlights the multifaceted and significant scientific work by Ross. In 1897, he demonstrated that malaria is transmitted via mosquito bites and that malaria parasites exist in the gastrointestinal tract of the mosquito. Ross elucidated the transmission cycle in mosquitoes and birds infected with Plasmodium. His 25-year career in the Indian Medical Service laid the foundation for his ground-breaking work in malaria. Besides medicine, Ross excelled in poetry, music, and mathematics. The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine has a frieze dedicated to 23 people chosen for their accomplishments in the field of public health, one of whom is Sir Ronald Ross. His legacy lives on through various honors and institutions, like the Ross Institute.

Rudolf Virchow: Integrating Medicine and Social Reform for Public Health.

Rudolf Virchow, also known as Rudolf Carl Virchow, was a physician, pathologist, medical scientist, anthropologist, politician, social reformer, and role model. However, he is best known as the founder of the field of cellular pathology. He is known as "the father of modern pathology" and the founder of social medicine. He was born on October 13, 1821, in Prussia (now Swidwin, Poland) and died on September 5, 1902, in Berlin, Germany. He stressed that most diseases of mankind can be understood in terms of the dysfunction of cells. His study subjects were cell theory, disease, embolus, and thrombosis. He actively promoted social reforms and helped establish anthropology as a contemporary scientific field. He was also awarded and honored by the Copley Medal in 1892 for his notable work in "Cellular Pathology as Based Upon Physiological and Pathological Histology" and "Handbuch der Speziellen Pathologie und Therapie." Virchow said, "Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing more than medicine on a grand scale." He believed that politics and social structures could have a significant positive or negative impact on public health, that medicine and public health practices used politically might change society, and that politicians and doctors had a moral duty to improve society. Knowing about Virchow helps us appreciate his ideas that laid the groundwork for many medical and scientific practices, the historical development of medical science, and the ongoing need to address social health factors. Virchow's contributions are still relevant in today's medical and public health fields. His work on cellular pathology forms the basis for many aspects of contemporary medicine, such as cancer, infectious diseases, and genetic disorders. His focus on social determinants of health remains a core principle in public health. Today, issues such as poverty, education, housing, and nutrition are acknowledged as factors affecting health outcomes. Virchow's beliefs in ethical responsibility, social transformation, and justice have affected medical ethics and the role of health professionals in society. This article highlights Rudolf Virchow's enormous contribution to pathology, medicine, and public health.

Louis Pasteur: A Legacy Unmasked.

Louis Pasteur is perhaps the most globally recognized French scientist. His groundbreaking discoveries in molecular chirality and advancements in fermentation greatly benefited brewers and winemakers. Pasteur introduced the process of pasteurization to sterilize wines and significantly contributed to the development of germ theory, which made Joseph Lister's antiseptic surgical techniques possible. Despite initially disproving Antoine Béchamp's theory that silkworm disease was caused by a microbial infection, Pasteur tackled this issue effectively. Building on the work of Henri Toussaint and Pierre Victor Galtier, he developed vaccines for pig erysipelas, chicken cholera, anthrax, and rabies. Pasteur also coined the term "vaccination," which Richard Dunning had used before Edward Jenner expanded upon it. Although Robert Koch criticized Pasteur's vaccination methods as ambiguous, historians have clarified many of the myths surrounding Pasteur. This review explores Pasteur's career, his undeniable achievements, and the realities behind the legendary figure who strove to make a significant impact on science and medicine.

From Transfusion Medicine to Vaccines: The Enduring Impact of Karl Landsteiner.

This is the biography of the Nobel Prize winner Karl Landsteiner who divided human blood into groups according to the presence of naturally occurring agglutinating antibodies. His research eventually led to the establishment of safe transfusion practices. Before his discovery, transfusions of blood were given to patients in need from animals like sheep or randomly chosen human donors, often with disastrous results. Millions of lives were genuinely saved by Landsteiner's discovery. He established the foundation for the creation of the polio vaccine by determining that a microbe causes poliomyelitis. Additionally, Landsteiner contributed to the identification of the syphilis-causing microbes. This biography is a tribute to the legend Karl Landsteiner.

The Legacy of Shanti Teresa Lakra and Its Impact on Public Health in the Andaman Islands.

In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Shanti Teresa Lakra, a committed Indian medical nurse, has made a major impact on public health. Lakra, who was born in Rangat on May 1, 1972, was motivated to become a nurse by her elder sister. Her work with the Onge tribe has earned her recognition, particularly in the wake of the 2004 tsunami that destroyed their settlements. Lakra has devoted her professional life to enhancing the health of these indigenous people and averting their extinction by working with particularly vulnerable tribal groups. When she started her work, there were just 78 Onge people living there. She worked constantly to improve healthcare and education, and in five years, the population grew to 100. Her effort required overcoming socioeconomic obstacles, linguistic limitations, and the tribe's initial apprehensions. Despite hazardous circumstances, Lakra helped by immunizing the Jarawa tribe during the COVID-19 outbreak. Her efforts have been recognized with prestigious awards, including the Florence Nightingale Award and the Padma Shri. Her legacy is marked by her empowerment of tribal communities, her role as a healthcare role model, and her advancements in public health in remote areas.

Exploring the Global Health Legacy of Dr. Vulimiri Ramalingaswami: A Review of His Life and Contributions.

Dr. Vulimiri Ramalingaswami was an Indian biomedical scientist who rose to fame in the 20th century. He became well-known during his lifetime. Possessing a sharp mind, well-developed communication skills, a love of research and teaching, and a strong commitment to public welfare, he set an unwavering path to success in any field he decided to pursue. He broke new ground in administration, public service, research, and medical education. He was endowed with an enigmatic charm that won the respect of everyone he encountered. He made his students and coworkers leaders by setting a good example. As a result, he excelled in representing Indian biomedical research abroad. He was well known for his ability to think clearly, to present ideas and thoughts either orally or in writing with eloquence, and to do so in a straightforward manner.

Effects of Maternal Anemia Affecting Fetal Outcomes: A Narrative Review.

This review's main objective was to assess the obstacles to anemia prevention, as well as the attitudes and behaviors of anemic women toward their condition. Since iron is crucial for neurodevelopment, iron deficiency anemia (IDA) accounts for the majority of pregnant mothers having anemia. In India and other developing countries, anemia is a serious health problem. More than half of pregnant women have anemia. The search strategy was conducted in PubMed. Few of the articles were searched without using MeSH terms. Strong correlations between mothers' anemia and that of their offspring point to intergenerational anemia with lasting consequences. Children who were underweight at birth and those who were malnourished had a higher risk of having anemia. Clinicians usually evaluate anemia, and the criteria for determining the cause of anemia are outlined in this brief review.

Perceptions of Stakeholders and the Way Forward to Implementing the Family Adoption Programme in Medical Education: A Study From Assam, India.

Background The Family Adoption Programme (FAP) has been introduced under the competency-based medical education curriculum wherein each medical student adopts families. The objective of this study was to determine the stakeholders' perspective and to suggest measures to make it relevant for Indian medical graduates. Methodology A mixed-method study was conducted among the faculty, undergraduate students, and community using prestructured, validated instruments. The quantitative data were entered into Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA) and analysed, while the qualitative data were coded and analysed thematically. Results All faculty members (12, 100%), the majority of students (49, 44.30%), and the community members strongly agreed that the policy decision to introduce the FAP was 'right'. The benefits mentioned were that FAP helps improve knowledge, psychomotor skills, attitudes and communication, attitude and behaviour skills, understanding of the social structures, health status of the community, and health-seeking behaviour of the families and provides an appropriate early clinical exposure. The challenges mentioned were selecting a site, gaining cooperation from family, communication, arrangement of logistics and transportation, getting support from teachers, difficulties in managing students in the community and coordinating among faculty, staff and students. Most faculty members recommended that the FAP should be started later in the curriculum and there should be restrictions on the number of families to be adopted. The students suggested that adequate logistics be provided as well as a reduction in the number of family visits. Conclusion The programme has been welcomed by most stakeholders. It requires the necessary support from the institution authorities, prior planning of visits, judicious utilization of social media, and coordination with government field-level health workers e.g. Accreditated Social Health Activists (ASHA). A comprehensive program evaluation and formulation of a standard operating module will further strengthen the programme.

A Mixed-Method Study of the Utilization and Determinants of Private Health Insurance Schemes in the Residents of Rural Communities in Central India: A Study Protocol.

Background Private health insurance plays a critical role in healthcare financing, yet its utilization and determinants in rural settings still need to be studied, particularly in Central India. This study aims to address this gap by investigating the utilization and determinants of private health insurance schemes among residents of rural communities in Central India. Materials and methods A convergent parallel mixed-method study design, consisting of quantitative and qualitative approaches, will be employed. Quantitative data will be collected through structured questionnaires administered to residents aged 18 and above within the field practice area of a tertiary medical college hospital. Qualitative data will be gathered through in-depth interviews with key stakeholders. Statistical analysis will include descriptive and inferential statistics, while thematic analysis will be employed for qualitative data (CTRI Number CTRI/2024/06/069155). Conclusion The findings of this study will provide valuable insights into the utilization and determinants of private health insurance schemes in rural communities of Central India. By identifying barriers and facilitators to insurance uptake, policymakers and healthcare providers can develop targeted interventions to improve healthcare access and affordability in rural areas. In addition, the study will contribute to the existing literature on private health insurance utilization in India, informing future research endeavors and policy initiatives.

Dr. Ratan Chandra Kar: The Journey of the Jarawa Doctor.

 A distinguished physician Dr. Ratan Chandra Kar, born in 1954 in West Bengal, India, is known for his pivotal role in providing healthcare to the Jarawa tribe of the Andaman Islands. He began his service toward the Jarawa tribes in 1998, notably combating a devastating measles outbreak in 1999 that threatened the tribe's existence. Overcoming initial distrust, Dr. Kar earned the tribe's confidence through cultural respect and medical expertise, treating over a hundred patients at the peak of the epidemic. He had established a dedicated Jarawa Ward at Kadamtala Hospital, integrating their traditional practices with modern medicine. For his dedication, Dr. Kar received the Padma Shri in 2023, for contributing significantly to the tribe's growth from 255 to 260 individuals in 1998 to over 560 today. His work stands as a testament to the importance of culturally sensitive healthcare in preserving vulnerable indigenous communities.