[Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection in pediatrics. Part 2: Working group associated with the Antimicrobial Committee, Chilean Society of Infectology]. / Recomendaciones para diagnóstico y tratamiento de la infección del tracto urinario en pediatría. Parte 2: Grupo de trabajo asociado al Comité de Antimicrobianos, Sociedad Chilena de Infectología (SOCHINF).

The urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common bacterial infections in childhood. An adequate diagnosis is essential to be able to carry out a rational, efficient and effective treatment, however, there is great heterogeneity in diagnostic methods, specifically in the study of antimicrobial susceptibility. The aim of these recommendations is to provide tools to homogenize the diagnosis criteria, susceptibility study and antimicrobial treatment of urinary tract infection in the pediatric population, with a rational use of antibiotics approach. In the first part, the recommendations regarding diagnosis were presented, such as sampling and cut-off points, as well as microbiological considerations for susceptibility study and management of UTI in pediatrics. This second part details the management of complications, UTI in special situations, and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations of antimicrobials to be prescribed in UTI.

[Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection in pediatrics. Part 1: Working group associated with the Antimicrobial Committee, Chilean Society of Infectology]. / Recomendaciones para diagnóstico y tratamiento de la infección del tracto urinario en pediatría. Parte 1: Grupo de trabajo asociado al Comité de Antimicrobianos, Sociedad Chilena de Infectología (SOCHINF).

The urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common bacterial infections in childhood. An adequate diagnosis is essential to be able to carry out a rational, efficient and effective treatment, however, there great heterogeneity in diagnostic methods, specifically in the study of antimicrobial susceptibility. The aim of these recommendations is to provide tools to homogenize the diagnosis criteria, susceptibility study and antimicrobial treatment of urinary tract infection in the pediatric population, with a rational use of antibiotics approach. In the first part, the recommendations regarding diagnosis are presented, such as sampling and cut-off points, as well as microbiological considerations for susceptibility study and management of UTI in pediatrics. The second part details the management of complications, UTI in special situations, and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations of antimicrobials to be prescribed in UTI.

Recomendaciones para diagnóstico y tratamiento de la infección del tracto urinario en pediatría. Parte 1: Grupo de trabajo asociado al Comité de Antimicrobianos, Sociedad Chilena de Infectología (SOCHINF) / Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection in pediatrics. Part 1: Working group associated with the Antimicrobial Committee, Chilean Society of Infectology

Resumen La infección del tracto urinario (ITU) es una de las infecciones bacterianas más frecuentes en la infancia. Un adecuado diagnóstico es esencial para poder realizar un tratamiento racional, eficiente y eficaz; sin embargo, existe gran heterogeneidad en los métodos diagnósticos, específicamente en el estudio de la susceptibilidad antimicrobiana. El objetivo de estas recomendaciones es entregar herramientas para uniformar los criterios diagnósticos, el estudio de susceptibilidad bacteriana in vitro y el tratamiento antimicrobiano de la ITU en la población pediátrica, con un enfoque de uso racional de los antimicrobianos. En esta primera parte, se presentan las recomendaciones en cuanto a cómo obtener una adecuada muestra de orina, el diagnóstico de laboratorio incluyendo puntos de corte -unidades formadoras de colonias/mL de orina-, además de consideraciones microbiológicas para el estudio de susceptibilidad y finalmente, el manejo de la ITU en pediatría. En la segunda parte se detalla el tratamiento antimicrobiano de sus complicaciones, el manejo de ITU en situaciones especiales y consideraciones farmacocinéticas y farmacodinámicas de los antimicrobianos a indicar en ITU.

Abstract The urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common bacterial infections in childhood. An adequate diagnosis is essential to be able to carry out a rational, efficient and effective treatment, however, there great heterogeneity in diagnostic methods, specifically in the study of antimicrobial susceptibility. The aim of these recommendations is to provide tools to homogenize the diagnosis criteria, susceptibility study and antimicrobial treatment of urinary tract infection in the pediatric population, with a rational use of antibiotics approach. In the first part, the recommendations regarding diagnosis are presented, such as sampling and cut-off points, as well as microbiological considerations for susceptibility study and management of UTI in pediatrics. The second part details the management of complications, UTI in special situations, and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations of antimicrobials to be prescribed in UTI.

[Is it time to vaccine pregnant woman against pertussis?]. / ¿Es tiempo de vacunar a la mujer embarazada contra la coqueluche?

Pertussis may cause death in neonates and very young infants. In these ages pertussis vaccine has not been administered yet or infants haven't received enough doses of vaccine to protect them. Cocoon strategy have been implemented in several countries and has limited efficacy because of low coverage among households. In vaccinated pregnant women transplacental transfer of pertussis antibodies starts at 32-34 weeks of pregnancy. United Kingdom, The United States of America and afterward other countries in Europe and America have adopted this strategy. Recent British research about security and effectiveness of pertussis vaccination in pregnant women to reduce pertussis incidence and fatality cases in neonate and very young infants infant support this strategy despite the fact that controlled studies about the efficacy and security in mothers and neonates have not been published. Several studies still not published or in progress are trying to answer these two questions and to evaluate possible interference between transplacentaly transferred pertussis antibodies and infants immune response to routine vaccines. Recently WHO has recommended pertussis vaccination during pregnancy in countries where neonatal pertussis is a public health problem. Nowadays, Chilean experts discuss if pertussis vaccination of pregnant women must be adopted in our country.

[Fatal pneumococcal meningitis due to serotype 19 A: A preventable case?]. / Meningitis neumocóccica por serotipo 19 A, de curso fatal: ¿Un caso prevenible?

Invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) remains as an important cause of morbidity in the world and in our country, while in Chile the incidence has decreased after the incorporation of the 10 valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, in the routine infant inmunization schedule (EPI). One of the expected effects of the program after vaccination with 10-valent pneumococcal vaccine is the likely replacement serotype phenomenon that means the presence of ENI caused by serotypes not included in the vaccine. In this context, we present the case of a child with pneumococcal meningitis caused by serotype 19 A of fatal course. The occurrence of ENI in a later stage of pneumococcal vaccine incorporation in Chile reinforces the importance of active surveillance, in order to know in detail the impact of vaccination, distribution of circulating serotypes and their correlation with the different clinical disease and their severity.

¿Es tiempo de vacunar a la mujer embarazada contra la coqueluche? / Is it time to vaccine pregnant woman against pertussis?

Pertussis may cause death in neonates and very young infants. In these ages pertussis vaccine has not been administered yet or infants haven't received enough doses of vaccine to protect them. Cocoon strategy have been implemented in several countries and has limited efficacy because of low coverage among households. In vaccinated pregnant women transplacental transfer of pertussis antibodies starts at 32-34 weeks of pregnancy. United Kingdom, The United States of America and afterward other countries in Europe and America have adopted this strategy. Recent British research about security and effectiveness of pertussis vaccination in pregnant women to reduce pertussis incidence and fatality cases in neonate and very young infants infant support this strategy despite the fact that controlled studies about the efficacy and security in mothers and neonates have not been published. Several studies still not published or in progress are trying to answer these two questions and to evaluate possible interference between transplacentaly transferred pertussis antibodies and infants immune response to routine vaccines. Recently WHO has recommended pertussis vaccination during pregnancy in countries where neonatal pertussis is a public health problem. Nowadays, Chilean experts discuss if pertussis vaccination of pregnant women must be adopted in our country.

La coqueluche puede ser letal en neonatos y lactantes en sus primeros meses de vida. En estas edades, la vacunación anti Bordetella pertussis no ha sido administrada aún o completada hasta lograr la protección del niño. La estrategia de capullo implementada en diversas naciones es de limitada eficacia por la dificultad que entraña alcanzar altas coberturas entre los contactos de los neonatos. Surge como una posibilidad la vacunación en la mujer embarazada, estrategia fundamentada en el efectivo paso de anticuerpos maternos al neonato a partir de las 32-34 semanas de gestación. El Reino Unido, los Estados Unidos de América y luego otros países en Europa y América, han adoptado esta estrategia de vacunación. Publicaciones recientes provenientes del Reino Unido, sobre la seguridad y efectividad de la vacunación en la mujer embarazada, para evitar casos fatales de coqueluche, apoyan estas decisiones adoptadas pese a no disponerse de estudios controlados en el binomio madre-hijo. Múltiples estudios finalizados pero no publicados o aún en desarrollo, pretenden responder estas dos preguntas y evaluar además si los anticuerpos que atraviesan la placenta interfieren sobre las vacunas que serán administradas al lactante en los primeros meses de vida. Recientemente, la Organización Mundial de la Salud ha recomendado considerar la vacunación durante el embarazo en países donde la coqueluche es un importante problema de salud pública en neonatos. Se discute en Chile si es la vacunación anti-pertussis en la mujer gestante una estrategia a adoptar.

Meningitis neumocóccica por serotipo 19 A, de curso fatal: ¿Un caso prevenible? / Fatal pneumococcal meningitis due to serotype 19 A: A preventable case?

Invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) remains as an important cause of morbidity in the world and in our country, while in Chile the incidence has decreased after the incorporation of the 10 valent pneumococcal conju-gate vaccine, in the routine infant inmunization schedule (EPI). One of the expected effects of the program after vaccination with 10-valent pneumococcal vaccine is the likely replacement serotype phenomenon that means the presence of ENI caused by serotypes not included in the vaccine. In this context, we present the case of a child with pneumococcal meningitis caused by serotype 19 A of fatal course. The occurrence of ENI in a later stage of pneumococcal vaccine incorporation in Chile reinforces the importance of active surveillance, in order to know in detail the impact of vaccination, distribution of circulating serotypes and their correlation with the different clinical disease and their severity.

La enfermedad neumocóccica invasora (ENI) sigue siendo una causa importante de morbilidad en el mundo y en nuestro país, si bien en Chile la incidencia ha disminuido luego de la incorporación de la vacuna neumocóccica conjugada 10-valente al Programa Nacional de Inmunizaciones (PNI). Uno de los efectos esperables luego de la vacunación programática con la vacuna antineumocóccica 10-valente es el probable fenómeno de reemplazo, que corresponde a la presencia de ENI por serotipos no incluidos en la vacuna. En este contexto, se presenta el caso de un pre-escolar con meningitis neumocóccica causada por el serotipo 19 A, de curso fatal. La presencia de casos de ENI en una etapa posterior a la implementación de la vacuna anti-neumocóccica en el PNI de Chile, demuestra la importancia de realizar una vigilancia activa, con el objetivo de conocer en forma detallada el impacto de la vacunación, la distribución de los serotipos circulantes y su correlación con los diferentes cuadros clínicos y su evolución.

[Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea in children]. / Diarrea asociada a Clostridium difficile en niños.

INTRODUCTION: Clostridium difficile is the most commonly isolated organism in antimicrobial and health care-associated diarrhea and is growing in relevance in community-acquired infections. It is a Gram-positive bacillus acquired via the fecal-oral route in the community and in hospital setting. EPIDEMIOLOGY: 0.6 to 2.1% worldwide incidence, mortality ~ 1-5%. COLONIZATION: High rates of asymptomatic colonization in healthy people, 37% in children: its presence in stools is of controversial significance. Risk factors in children are prior exposure to antibiotics, recent hospitalization, immunosuppression or inflammatory bowel disease. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS: Secondary to intestinal involvement due to toxin production, ranging from asymptomatic colonization to fulminant disease. DIAGNOSIS: Clinical diagnostic criteria plus high sensitivity and specificity laboratory certification. Recommendations AAP (American Academy of Pediatrics): under 1 year, avoid routine study, only in Hirschsprung disease and/or nosocomial outbreak, 1-3 year, a (+) result suggests C. difficile associated diarrhea (CDAD) is possible, and in children older than 3 years interpretation is equal to adults. MANAGEMENT: Antimicrobial suspension, oral metronidazole as first line in mild to moderate CDAD, and oral or enema vancomycin or associated with intravenous metronidazole only in severe cases. Duration 10 days. PREVENTION: Antimicrobial control programs and environmental management. CONCLUSION: Given the increasing complexity of pediatric patients it is important to deepen the knowledge on this microorganism and its clinical manifestations, as its incidence, morbidity and mortality are increasing.

[Pertussis vaccines: acellular versus whole cell. Perhaps a return to the past?]. / Vacunas anti-pertussis: acelular versus celular. ¿Acaso un regreso al pasado?

The resurgence of pertussis in the world and in our country has questioned the effectiveness of cellular and acellular vaccines. The reason why pertussis has not been controlled or eliminated after 70 years of implementation of the vaccination is probably multifactorial. This article, on the basis of questions and answers, describes the benefits and limitations of both cellular and acellular vaccines and suggests new strategies of vaccination in childhood. It is a fact that the currently applied vaccination does not eliminate the circulation of Bordetella pertussis in the community. Perhaps the introduction of vaccines with live B. pertussis, inhalation, will be able to eliminate the disease around the world.

Incidencia de cáncer en niños chilenos infectados por VIH / Incidence of cáncer in Chilean HIV-infected children

Background: Pediatric HIV (+) patients have a 100 times greater risk of cancer than HIV (-) children. Objective: To describe in Chilean HIV (+) children, cancer types, its appearance in relation to the stages of HIV disease and mortality. Methods: A protocol was created to know some characteristics of these patients from the point of view of their HIV infection and cancer pathology. Results: Of 360 HIV (+) children confirmed by the Institute of Public Health to May 2014, 9 patients with neoplastic disease (2.5%) were diagnosed. All the children were on ART, had more than three years of evolution of HIV infection and were in moderate to severe clinical/immunological stages. Lymphoma was the most common cancer. Five children, has received therapy according to Programa Infantil Nacional de Drogas Antineoplásicas (PINDA). There was no interaction between cancer treatment and antiretroviral therapy. Mortality was 13.8 x 1000 (5 cases). Conclusions: The incidence and type of neoplasia is consistent with the international literature, with less survival than HIV (+) children without tumors. The occurrence of cancer was observed in children with moderate to severe clinical and immunological compromise.

Introducción: Los pacientes pediátricos con infección por VIH tienen un riesgo 100 veces mayor de presentar cáncer que los niños no infectados. Objetivos: Describir en niños chilenos con infección por VIH, los tipos de cáncer, su aparición en relación a las etapas de la enfermedad por VIH y la letalidad. Material y Métodos: Se creó un protocolo para conocer algunas características de estos pacientes desde el punto de vista de su infección por VIH y su patología oncológica. Resultados: De 360 niños infectados confirmados por el Instituto de Salud Pública a mayo de 2014, se diagnosticaron nueve casos con patología oncológica (2,5%).Todos los niños estaban con TARV, tenían una evolución de infección por VIH mayor a 3 años, en etapas clínicas/inmunológicas moderada a grave. Linfoma fue el cáncer más frecuente. Cinco niños, recibieron terapia de acuerdo al Programa Infantil Nacional de Drogas Antineoplásicas (PINDA). No hubo interacción entre tratamiento anti-neoplásico y terapia anti-retroviral. La mortalidad fue de 13,8 x 1.000 (5 casos). Conclusiones: La incidencia y tipo de neoplasias está de acuerdo con lo comunicado en la literatura científica internacional, con sobrevida inferior a los niños con infección por VIH sin neoplasias. La aparición de cáncer se observó en niños con larga evolución y compromiso clínico e inmunológico moderado a grave.