Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition (GLIM): Guidance on validation of the operational criteria for the diagnosis of protein-energy malnutrition in adults.

BACKGROUND: The Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition (GLIM) created a consensus-based framework consisting of phenotypic and etiologic criteria to record the occurrence of malnutrition in adults. This is a minimum set of practicable indicators for use in characterizing a patient/client as malnourished, considering the global variations in screening and nutrition assessment, and to be used across different health care settings. As with other consensus-based frameworks for diagnosing disease states, these operational criteria require validation and reliability testing as they are currently based solely on expert opinion. METHODS: Several forms of validation and reliability are reviewed in the context of GLIM, providing guidance on how to conduct retrospective and prospective studies for criterion and construct validity. FINDINGS: There are some aspects of GLIM criteria which require refinement; research using large data bases can be employed to reach this goal. Machine learning is also introduced as a potential method to support identification of the best cut-points and combinations of operational criteria for use with the different forms of malnutrition, which the GLIM criteria were created to denote. It is noted as well that the validation and reliability testing need to occur in a variety of sectors, populations and with diverse persons completing the criteria. CONCLUSION: The guidance presented supports the conduct and publication of quality validation and reliability studies for GLIM.

GLIM criteria for the diagnosis of malnutrition - A consensus report from the global clinical nutrition community.

RATIONALE: This initiative is focused on building a global consensus around core diagnostic criteria for malnutrition in adults in clinical settings. METHODS: In January 2016, the Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition (GLIM) was convened by several of the major global clinical nutrition societies. GLIM appointed a core leadership committee and a supporting working group with representatives bringing additional global diversity and expertise. Empirical consensus was reached through a series of face-to-face meetings, telephone conferences, and e-mail communications. RESULTS: A two-step approach for the malnutrition diagnosis was selected, i.e., first screening to identify "at risk" status by the use of any validated screening tool, and second, assessment for diagnosis and grading the severity of malnutrition. The malnutrition criteria for consideration were retrieved from existing approaches for screening and assessment. Potential criteria were subjected to a ballot among the GLIM core and supporting working group members. The top five ranked criteria included three phenotypic criteria (weight loss, low body mass index, and reduced muscle mass) and two etiologic criteria (reduced food intake or assimilation, and inflammation or disease burden). To diagnose malnutrition at least one phenotypic criterion and one etiologic criterion should be present. Phenotypic metrics for grading severity as Stage 1 (moderate) and Stage 2 (severe) malnutrition are proposed. It is recommended that the etiologic criteria be used to guide intervention and anticipated outcomes. The recommended approach supports classification of malnutrition into four etiology-related diagnosis categories. CONCLUSION: A consensus scheme for diagnosing malnutrition in adults in clinical settings on a global scale is proposed. Next steps are to secure further collaboration and endorsements from leading nutrition professional societies, to identify overlaps with syndromes like cachexia and sarcopenia, and to promote dissemination, validation studies, and feedback. The diagnostic construct should be re-considered every 3-5 years.

GLIM criteria for the diagnosis of malnutrition - A consensus report from the global clinical nutrition community.

RATIONALE: This initiative is focused on building a global consensus around core diagnostic criteria for malnutrition in adults in clinical settings. METHODS: In January 2016, the Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition (GLIM) was convened by several of the major global clinical nutrition societies. GLIM appointed a core leadership committee and a supporting working group with representatives bringing additional global diversity and expertise. Empirical consensus was reached through a series of face-to-face meetings, telephone conferences, and e-mail communications. RESULTS: A two-step approach for the malnutrition diagnosis was selected, i.e., first screening to identify "at risk" status by the use of any validated screening tool, and second, assessment for diagnosis and grading the severity of malnutrition. The malnutrition criteria for consideration were retrieved from existing approaches for screening and assessment. Potential criteria were subjected to a ballot among the GLIM core and supporting working group members. The top five ranked criteria included three phenotypic criteria (non-volitional weight loss, low body mass index, and reduced muscle mass) and two etiologic criteria (reduced food intake or assimilation, and inflammation or disease burden). To diagnose malnutrition at least one phenotypic criterion and one etiologic criterion should be present. Phenotypic metrics for grading severity as Stage 1 (moderate) and Stage 2 (severe) malnutrition are proposed. It is recommended that the etiologic criteria be used to guide intervention and anticipated outcomes. The recommended approach supports classification of malnutrition into four etiology-related diagnosis categories. CONCLUSION: A consensus scheme for diagnosing malnutrition in adults in clinical settings on a global scale is proposed. Next steps are to secure further collaboration and endorsements from leading nutrition professional societies, to identify overlaps with syndromes like cachexia and sarcopenia, and to promote dissemination, validation studies, and feedback. The diagnostic construct should be re-considered every 3-5 years.

ESPEN guidelines on definitions and terminology of clinical nutrition.

BACKGROUND: A lack of agreement on definitions and terminology used for nutrition-related concepts and procedures limits the development of clinical nutrition practice and research. OBJECTIVE: This initiative aimed to reach a consensus for terminology for core nutritional concepts and procedures. METHODS: The European Society of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) appointed a consensus group of clinical scientists to perform a modified Delphi process that encompassed e-mail communication, face-to-face meetings, in-group ballots and an electronic ESPEN membership Delphi round. RESULTS: Five key areas related to clinical nutrition were identified: concepts; procedures; organisation; delivery; and products. One core concept of clinical nutrition is malnutrition/undernutrition, which includes disease-related malnutrition (DRM) with (eq. cachexia) and without inflammation, and malnutrition/undernutrition without disease, e.g. hunger-related malnutrition. Over-nutrition (overweight and obesity) is another core concept. Sarcopenia and frailty were agreed to be separate conditions often associated with malnutrition. Examples of nutritional procedures identified include screening for subjects at nutritional risk followed by a complete nutritional assessment. Hospital and care facility catering are the basic organizational forms for providing nutrition. Oral nutritional supplementation is the preferred way of nutrition therapy but if inadequate then other forms of medical nutrition therapy, i.e. enteral tube feeding and parenteral (intravenous) nutrition, becomes the major way of nutrient delivery. CONCLUSION: An agreement of basic nutritional terminology to be used in clinical practice, research, and the ESPEN guideline developments has been established. This terminology consensus may help to support future global consensus efforts and updates of classification systems such as the International Classification of Disease (ICD). The continuous growth of knowledge in all areas addressed in this statement will provide the foundation for future revisions.

Association between chronic hepatitis C virus infection and low muscle mass in US adults.

Given that low muscle mass can lead to worse health outcomes in patients with chronic infections, we assessed whether chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection was associated with low muscle mass among US adults. We performed a cross-sectional study of the National Health Examination and Nutrition Study (1999-2010). Chronic HCV-infected patients had detectable HCV RNA. Low muscle mass was defined as <10th percentile for mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC). Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine adjusted odds ratios (aORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of low muscle mass associated with chronic HCV. Among 18 513 adults, chronic HCV-infected patients (n = 303) had a higher prevalence of low muscle mass than uninfected persons (13.8% vs 6.7%; aOR, 2.22; 95% CI, 1.39-3.56), and this association remained when analyses were repeated among persons without significant liver fibrosis (aOR, 2.12; 95% CI, 1.30-3.47). This study demonstrates that chronic HCV infection is associated with low muscle mass, as assessed by MUAC measurements, even in the absence of advanced liver disease.

Body image dissatisfaction is increased in male and overweight/obese adolescents in Botswana.

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to examine linkages between obesity, physical activity, and body image dissatisfaction, with consideration of socioeconomic status (SES) and urbanization in adolescents in Botswana. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A nationally representative, cross-sectional survey in 707 secondary school students included measured height and weight to determine overweight (OW) or obesity (OB) using World Health Organization standards; physical activity (PA) using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire; and body image satisfaction using the Body Ideals Questionnaire. SES was described by private school versus public school attendance. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: OW/OB students felt farther from ideal and greater dissatisfaction with their weight and body proportions than optimal weight students. Boys felt greater difference from ideal and more dissatisfaction with muscle tone, chest size, and strength than girls. Lower SES students and those from rural villages had more minutes of PA than higher SES or urban students. In this rapidly developing African country, these trends reflect the nutrition transition and offer opportunity to motivate OW/OB students and boys for PA as a health promotion obesity prevention behavior. CONCLUSIONS: As urbanization and improved SES are desirable and likely to continue, the public health system will be challenged to prevent obesity while preserving a healthy body image.

Association between socioeconomic status indicators and obesity in adolescent students in Botswana, an African country in rapid nutrition transition.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine two separate socioeconomic status (SES) indicators of obesity in Botswana, an African country that has experienced rapid economic development and where the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome is high. METHODS: We conducted a nationally representative, cross-sectional study of 707 adolescent secondary school students in Botswana. Measured height and weight were used to compute World Health Organization age- and sex-specific body mass index z-scores. SES was described by private vs. public school attendance and a survey of assets/facilities within the home. RESULTS: Overall, private school students and those with more assets had a higher prevalence of overweight and obesity than public school students (private: 27.1%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 20.4-34.5; public: 13.1%, 95% CI: 9.8-16.8) and those with fewer assets (more assets: 20.0%, 95% CI: 16.0-24.4; fewer assets: 11.2%, 95% CI: 6.6-16.9). CONCLUSIONS: Public health interventions in developing countries may need to be targeted differently to low or high SES individuals in order to treat already high obesity rates in higher SES groups and to prevent the development of obesity in lower SES communities undergoing economic transition.

Comparison between Medgem and Deltatrac resting metabolic rate measurements.

OBJECTIVE: The primary aims of this trial were to evaluate the reproducibility of a portable handheld calorimeter (Medgem) in a clinical population, and to compare its measures with a calorimeter in typical use with these patients. DESIGN: Cross-sectional clinical validation study. SETTING: Outpatient Clinical Research Center. SUBJECTS: A total of 24 stable home nutrition support patients. INTERVENTIONS: In random order three measures of resting metabolic rate (RMR) were taken after a 4-h fast, 15 min rest and 2-h abstention from exercise. Two measures were taken with the same Medgem (MG) and one with the traditional calorimeter (Deltatrac). Reproducibility of MG measures and their comparability to a Deltatrac measure were assessed by Bland-Altman analysis, with >+/-250 kcal/day established a priori as a clinically unacceptable error. In addition, disagreement between the two types of measures was defined as greater than 10% difference. RESULTS: The mean difference between two MG measures was -6.8 kcal/day, with limits of agreement between 233 and -247 kcal/day and clinically acceptable. The mean difference between the Deltatrac and mean of two MG measures was -162 kcal/day, with limits of agreement between 577 and -253 kcal/day and clinically unacceptable. In all, 80% of the repeated MG RMR measures agreed within 10%, and the mean MG reading agreed with the Deltatrac in 60% of cases. CONCLUSIONS: RMR obtained using the MG calorimeter has an acceptable degree of reproducibility, and is acceptable to patients. The MG measures, however, are frequently lower than traditional measures and require further validation prior to application to practice in this vulnerable patient group.

Hyperhomocysteinemia is associated with venous thrombosis in patients with short bowel syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Hyperhomocysteinemia is associated with venous thrombosis and vitamin deficiency. Patients with short bowel syndrome have increased risk of venous thrombosis due to central catheters, and of vitamin deficiency due to malabsorption. The current investigation was designed to evaluate the relationship between history of venous thrombosis and current hyperhomocystinemia and vitamin deficiency in patients with short bowel syndrome. METHODS: Plasma total homocysteine (tHcy), serum vitamin B12, folate, B6, and methylmalonic acid (MMA) were measured. Venous thrombosis was documented by venogram or ultrasound. RESULTS: Ten of 17 patients had venous thromboses, including 17 of 38 observed superior and 12 of 26 inferior veins. Total homocysteine was correlated with number of thromboses. The relative risk of multiple thromboses in the highest tHcy tertile was 3.6-fold that of the lowest tertile. Vitamin B12 and folate levels were within normal limits, but B12 deficiency by MMA or tHcy level was apparent in 7 patients. Vitamin-deficient patients had higher tHcy and MMA than those without deficiency. CONCLUSIONS: Venous thrombosis in patients with short bowel syndrome is related to hyperhomocystinemia, which is also related to vitamin B12 deficiency, not detected by serum vitamin B12 concentration. Whether treatment of vitamin deficiencies and associated reduction in tHcy will reduce recurrent venous thrombosis in these patients is not known.

Wheat bran decreases aberrant crypt foci, preserves normal proliferation, and increases intraluminal butyrate levels in experimental colon cancer.

BACKGROUND: Dietary wheat bran protects against colon cancer, but the mechanism(s) of this effect is not known. Butyrate, produced by colonic bacterial fermentation of dietary polysaccharides, such as wheat bran, induces apoptosis and decreases proliferation in colon cancer cell lines. Whether similar effects occur in vivo is not well defined. We hypothesized that wheat bran's antineoplastic effects in vivo may be mediated in part by butyrate's modulation of apoptosis and proliferation. METHODS: Male F344 rats were fed wheat bran-supplemented or an isocaloric, isonitrogenous fiber-free diet. Rats were treated with one dose of the carcinogen azoxymethane or vehicle with sacrifice after 5 days (tumor initiation); or two doses (days O and 7) with sacrifice after 56 days (tumor promotion). Study variables included fecal butyrate levels and the intermediate biomarkers of colon carcinogenesis, aberrant crypt foci (ACF), and changes in crypt cell proliferation and apoptosis. RESULTS: During tumor initiation, wheat bran produced greater apoptosis (p = .01), a trend toward less proliferation, and preserved the normal zone of proliferation (p = .01). At tumor promotion, wheat bran decreased the number of ACF (proximal colon, p = .005; distal colon, p = .047) and maintained the normal proliferative zone. The fiber-free diet shifted the zone of proliferation into the premalignant pattern in both studies. Wheat bran produced significantly higher fecal butyrate (p = .01; .004, .00001) levels than the fiber-free diet throughout the tumor promotion study. CONCLUSIONS: Wheat bran increased apoptosis and controlled proliferation during tumor initiation and resulted in decreased ACF. Wheat bran's antineoplastic effects occurred early after carcinogen exposure, and were associated with increased fecal butyrate levels.

Nutritional requirements of an aging population with emphasis on subacute care patients.

Life expectancy in the United States has increased dramatically during the past century, creating a large population of people with potentially compromised nutritional status. Although requirements were previously believed to decline with aging, recent data suggest that requirements for protein and energy often do not decline and may actually increase during disease exacerbations. Optimal intake of vitamins and minerals is also under reevaluation, and significant segments of the population may have deficiencies based on limited intake or absorption. Social and psychological factors and difficulty chewing and swallowing may interfere with adequate intake. At the end of a hospital stay, many patients need continued skilled transitional care before discharge home. Many patients who have existing nutritional deficits, including weight loss, decreased serum proteins and pressure ulcers are admitted to subacute nursing facilities. Careful initial and periodic reassessment of nutritional status and aggressive nutritional management must be used to prepare patients for optimal independence after discharge. Improved clinical outcome can be achieved with prevention of malnutrition and timely correction of nutritional problems.

Advanced dietetic training in nutrition support and metabolism: the University of Pennsylvania Medical Center experience.

The dietetic fellowship at the University of Pennsylvania Medical Center is highly rewarding for the nutrition support dietitians, and the dietetic fellows have identified an increased self-confidence as one of the major benefits. Advanced training of this nature is very labor intensive. In the current environment of cost containment and down-sizing of staff, it is unlikely that this type of program will flourish due to the high labor cost involved and limited funding available.

Home nutrition support patient education materials.

The practice of providing specialized enteral and parenteral nutrition to patients in the home setting has expanded nationwide during the past decade. Accompanying this growth has been an increased need for education of patients, families, and care providers in techniques of administering intravenous and tube feedings safely after discharge from the hospital. To meet this demand for information, written home nutrition support (HNS) education materials have been developed by hospital nutrition support teams, patient education specialists, home care providers, and formula manufacturers. The time and financial costs of developing these materials may be prohibitive in certain institutions that need HNS education resources. A directory of the printed materials available has been compiled to facilitate communication and exchange of HNS education information among institutions. The directory is presented with this article, with important characteristics to consider in the development of HNS education materials.

Staffing patterns in hospital clinical dietetics and nutrition support: a survey conducted by the Dietitians in Nutrition Support dietetic practice group.

The Dietitians in Nutrition Support dietetic practice group of The American Dietetic Association administered a questionnaire to evaluate changes in nutrition support services provided to hospitalized patients and home patients in 1989 and compared the results with results of a survey administered in 1986. The 1986 survey documented an increase in tube feeding to inpatients during 1984 to 1986 and greater dietitian staffing in tertiary care hospitals than in primary care hospitals and in larger hospitals in 1986. The 1989 questionnaire was mailed to clinical nutrition managers from a nationwide random sample of 1,000 hospitals from American Hospital Association members; 271 responses were received. Full-time equivalent (FTE) registered dietitians (RDs)--including clinical RDs, nutrition support service RDs, and clinical nutrition managers--decreased 11% from 1986 to 1989. FTE dietetic technicians decreased 22%. The number of FTE nutrition support service RDs and clinical nutrition managers decreased significantly (P less than .05). The mean number of FTE clinical dietitians per 100 beds decreased from 1.4 to 1.0 from 1986 to 1989. These decreases in dietetics staffing occurred despite an overall increase in total hospital FTE staff of 2.9%. Reported daily provision of nutrition support modalities to inpatients was 3.5% for parenteral nutrition, 4.9% for enteral tube feeding, and 9.6% for oral supplements. Decreased dietetics staffing was accompanied by other factors that negatively affect productivity (and therefore ability to provide adequate patient care), including inadequate delegation of technical tasks to dietetic technicians, limited availability of secretarial and computer support, and minimal provision of pocket pagers. These trends may be evidence of inadequacy of dietetics staffing to meet the needs of the US population for nutrition care.

Nutritional support in renal failure.

Adequate protein intake is necessary in renal failure to reduce morbidity. The desire to avoid dialysis should not be a justification to starve patients, particularly because fed patients have better survival rates in acute renal failure. The treatment techniques for renal failure may be used secondarily as a delivery route for nutrients.

Changes in billing for nutrition support services and dietetics staff resources between 1984 and 1986.

Changes in hospital funding resulting from the Prospective Payment System have been recognized as a major force in hospitals in the 1980s. The Dietitians in Nutrition Support (DNS) Practice Group examined these changes using a survey sent to 1,000 clinical nutrition managers at American Hospital Association (AHA) hospitals. The goals of the survey were (a) to evaluate changes in billing for nutrition services and (b) to evaluate changes in resources available to dietetics staff members. Although income from nutrition services to inpatients had increased only 18% since 1984, 45% of respondents reported an increase in payment for outpatient services. Prior to 1984, larger hospitals reported screening for malnutrition more often than smaller hospitals, and the responsibility for screening was handled more often by dietetic technicians than by RDs. Larger hospitals also reported establishment of a home nutrition support company more often than smaller hospitals. Computer and academic course costs were paid more frequently by nonprofit and tertiary hospitals. Although the number of hospitals billing for nutrition services to patients was small, most reported receiving payment. We conclude that charges for nutrition services by dietitians to outpatients have increased, and that most dietitians who bill for services receive payment. Academic and technological resources for RDs have increased in general, though smaller primary-care and for-profit hospitals report such supports less consistently than larger, tertiary-care, and not-for-profit hospitals.

Changes in nutrition support services between 1984 and 1986.

Reports of the economic impact of diagnosis-related group funding on staffing and patient care in hospitals have varied from optimistic to bleak. The Dietitians in Nutrition Support Practice Group of The American Dietetic Association developed a questionnaire to evaluate changes in nutrition support services provided to inpatients and home patients between 1984 and 1986. The written survey instrument was mailed to clinical nutrition managers at a nationwide random selection of 1,000 hospital members of the American Hospital Association. Two hundred thirty-six responses were received. Respondents reported an increase in the use of enteral nutrition support for inpatients between 1984 and 1986. In 1986, tertiary-care hospitals also reported greater use of parenteral nutrition support and tube feeding for inpatients and home patients than did primary-care hospitals. Tertiary-care hospitals also reported higher staffing in 1986 than did primary-care hospitals in the following areas: clinical, nutrition support, and outpatient dietitians and dietetic technicians. Greater use of enteral and parenteral support for inpatients was noted by large hospitals as well as greater staffing in the following areas: clinical managers; nutrition support, clinical, outpatient, and home care dietitians; and dietetic technicians. However, the ratio of patients to RDs was greater in large than in small hospitals. There was no significant difference in patients:RD ratio between tertiary-care and primary-care hospitals. The only difference between responses from for-profit and nonprofit hospitals was in the number of nutrition support RD positions, which was larger in the nonprofit hospitals. Utilization of nutrition support for inpatients or home patients was not different for hospitals in different profit categories.