Gene expression in notochord and nuclei pulposi: a study of gene families across the chordate phylum.

The transition from notochord to vertebral column is a crucial milestone in chordate evolution and in prenatal development of all vertebrates. As ossification of the vertebral bodies proceeds, involutions of residual notochord cells into the intervertebral discs form the nuclei pulposi, shock-absorbing structures that confer flexibility to the spine. Numerous studies have outlined the developmental and evolutionary relationship between notochord and nuclei pulposi. However, the knowledge of the similarities and differences in the genetic repertoires of these two structures remains limited, also because comparative studies of notochord and nuclei pulposi across chordates are complicated by the gene/genome duplication events that led to extant vertebrates. Here we show the results of a pilot study aimed at bridging the information on these two structures. We have followed in different vertebrates the evolutionary trajectory of notochord genes identified in the invertebrate chordate Ciona, and we have evaluated the extent of conservation of their expression in notochord cells. Our results have uncovered evolutionarily conserved markers of both notochord development and aging/degeneration of the nuclei pulposi.

Loss of lumbar disc height with age and its impact on pain and sensitivity associated behaviors in mice.

PURPOSE: Aging is a risk factor for several debilitating conditions including those related to chronic back pain and intervertebral disc degeneration, both of which have no cure. Mouse models are useful tools for studying disc degeneration and chronic back pain in a tightly controlled and clinically relevant aging environment. Moreover, mice offer the advantage of carrying out longitudinal studies to understand the etiology and progression of disc pathology induced by genetic or surgical strategies. Previously, age-related behavioral trends of discomfort and enhanced nociception in mice were reported; however, whether these measures are mediated by structural and pathological changes in the disc is unknown. METHODS: The goal of the present observational study was to identify behavioral correlates of age-related degenerative changes in the disc. Towards this, we collected radiographs from 150 mice (77 females) between three and 23 months of age and measured the disc height index for each level of lumbar disc. Behavioral measures were collected on several of these mice which included rearing and distance travelled in an open field test; time spent in rearing, reaching, immobile, and self-suspended in the tail suspension test; bilateral hind paw licking in response to cold allodynia using acetone; and unilateral hind paw licking in response to heat hyperalgesia using capsaicin. RESULTS: Results show that the lower lumbar discs lose height with age and these changes are independent of body composition measures including body weight, bone mineral density, fat mass, lean weight mass, percent fat mass, and percent lean mass. Disc height positively correlates with rearing and mobility in the open field test, immobility in the tail suspension test, and thermal hyperalgesia. Disc height negatively correlates with cold allodynia and rearing in the tail suspension test. Furthermore, mediation analysis shows that the lumbosacral disc significantly mediates the effect of age on rearing in the open field test, but not cold allodynia, suggesting this behavior is a useful measure of age-related axial discomfort due to disc degeneration. CONCLUSION: In summary, the findings from the current study show that disc height are associated with measures of axial discomfort and nociception in mice.

Development of a standardized histopathology scoring system using machine learning algorithms for intervertebral disc degeneration in the mouse model-An ORS spine section initiative.

Mice have been increasingly used as preclinical model to elucidate mechanisms and test therapeutics for treating intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD). Several intervertebral disc (IVD) histological scoring systems have been proposed, but none exists that reliably quantitate mouse disc pathologies. Here, we report a new robust quantitative mouse IVD histopathological scoring system developed by building consensus from the spine community analyses of previous scoring systems and features noted on different mouse models of IDD. The new scoring system analyzes 14 key histopathological features from nucleus pulposus (NP), annulus fibrosus (AF), endplate (EP), and AF/NP/EP interface regions. Each feature is categorized and scored; hence, the weight for quantifying the disc histopathology is equally distributed and not driven by only a few features. We tested the new histopathological scoring criteria using images of lumbar and coccygeal discs from different IDD models of both sexes, including genetic, needle-punctured, static compressive models, and natural aging mice spanning neonatal to old age stages. Moreover, disc sections from common histological preparation techniques and stains including H&E, SafraninO/Fast green, and FAST were analyzed to enable better cross-study comparisons. Fleiss's multi-rater agreement test shows significant agreement by both experienced and novice multiple raters for all 14 features on several mouse models and sections prepared using various histological techniques. The sensitivity and specificity of the new scoring system was validated using artificial intelligence and supervised and unsupervised machine learning algorithms, including artificial neural networks, k-means clustering, and principal component analysis. Finally, we applied the new scoring system on established disc degeneration models and demonstrated high sensitivity and specificity of histopathological scoring changes. Overall, the new histopathological scoring system offers the ability to quantify histological changes in mouse models of disc degeneration and regeneration with high sensitivity and specificity.

A perspective on the ORS Spine Section initiative to develop a multi-species JOR Spine histopathology series.

This perspective summarizes the genesis, development, and potential future directions of the multispecies JOR Spine histopathology series.

Development of a standardized histopathology scoring system for human intervertebral disc degeneration: an Orthopaedic Research Society Spine Section Initiative.

BACKGROUND: Histopathological analysis of intervertebral disc (IVD) tissues is a critical domain of back pain research. Identification, description, and classification of attributes that distinguish abnormal tissues form a basis for probing disease mechanisms and conceiving novel therapies. Unfortunately, lack of standardized methods and nomenclature can limit comparisons of results across studies and prevent organizing information into a clear representation of the hierarchical, spatial, and temporal patterns of IVD degeneration. Thus, the following Orthopaedic Research Society (ORS) Spine Section Initiative aimed to develop a standardized histopathology scoring scheme for human IVD degeneration. METHODS: Guided by a working group of experts, this prospective process entailed a series of stages that consisted of reviewing and assessing past grading schemes, surveying IVD researchers globally on current practice and recommendations for a new grading system, utilizing expert opinion a taxonomy of histological grading was developed, and validation performed. RESULTS: A standardized taxonomy was developed, which showed excellent intra-rater reliability for scoring nucleus pulposus (NP), annulus fibrosus (AF), and cartilaginous end plate (CEP) regions (interclass correlation [ICC] > .89). The ability to reliably detect subtle changes varied by IVD region, being poorest in the NP (ICC: .89-.95) where changes at the cellular level were important, vs the AF (ICC: .93-.98), CEP (ICC: .97-.98), and boney end plate (ICC: .96-.99) where matrix and structural changes varied more dramatically with degeneration. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed grading system incorporates more comprehensive descriptions of degenerative features for all the IVD sub-tissues than prior criteria. While there was excellent reliability, our results reinforce the need for improved training, particularly for novice raters. Future evaluation of the proposed system in real-world settings (eg, at the microscope) will be needed to further refine criteria and more fully evaluate utility. This improved taxonomy could aid in the understanding of IVD degeneration phenotypes and their association with back pain.

An optimized step-by-step protocol for isolation of nucleus pulposus, annulus fibrosus, and end plate cells from the mouse intervertebral discs and subsequent preparation of high-quality intact total RNA.

Intervertebral disc degeneration is the most significant, and least understood, cause of chronic back pain, affecting almost one in seven individuals at some point of time. Each intervertebral disc has three components; central nucleus pulposus (NP), concentric layers of annulus fibrosus (AF), and a pair of end plate (EP) that connects the disc to the vertebral bodies. Understanding the molecular and cellular basis of intervertebral disc growth, health, and aging will generate significant information for developing therapeutic approaches. Rapid and efficient preparations of homogeneous and pure cells are crucial for meaningful and rigorous downstream analysis at the cellular, molecular, and biochemical level. Cross-sample contamination may influence the interpretation of the results. In addition to altering gene expression, slow or delayed isolation procedures will also cause the degradation of cells and biomolecules that create a bias in the outcomes of the study. The mouse model system is extensively used to understand the intervertebral disc biology. Here we describe two protocols: (a) for efficient isolation of pure NP, AF, and EP cells from mouse lumbar intervertebral disc. We validated the purity of the NP and AF cells using Shh Cre/+ ; R26 mT/mG/+ dual-fluorescent reporter mice where all NP cells are GPF+ve, and by the sensitive approach of qPCR analysis using TaqMan probes for Shh, and Brachyury as NP-specific markers, Tenomodulin as AF-specific marker, and Osteocalcin as bone-specific marker. (b) For isolation of high-quality intact RNA with RIN of 9.3 to 10 from disc cells. These methods will be useful for the rigorous analysis of NP and AF cells, and improve our understanding of intervertebral disc biology.

Advancing basic and preclinical spine research: Highlights from the ORS PSRS 5th International Spine Research Symposium.

The fifth biennial ORS PSRS International Spine Research Symposium took place from November 3 to 7, 2019, at Skytop Lodge in northeastern Pennsylvania. Organized jointly by the Orthopaedic Research Society and the Philadelphia Spine Research Society, the symposium attracted more than 180 participants from 10 different countries to share the latest advances in basic and preclinical spine research. Following the symposium, participants were invited to submit full-length manuscripts to this special issue of JOR Spine.

Defects in intervertebral disc and spine during development, degeneration, and pain: New research directions for disc regeneration and therapy.

Intervertebral discs are cartilaginous joints present between vertebrae. The centers of the intervertebral discs consist of a gelatinous nucleus pulposus derived from the embryonic notochord. With age or injury, intervertebral discs may degenerate, causing neurological symptoms including back pain, which affects millions of people worldwide. Back pain is a multifactorial disorder, and disc degeneration is one of the primary contributing factors. Recent studies in mice have identified the key molecules involved in the formation of intervertebral discs. Several of these key molecules including sonic hedgehog and Brachyury are not only expressed by notochord during development, but are also expressed by neonatal mouse nucleus pulposus cells, and are crucial for postnatal disc maintenance. These findings suggest that intrinsic signals in each disc may maintain the nucleus pulposus microenvironment. However, since expression of these developmental signals declines with age and degeneration, disc degeneration may be related to the loss of these intrinsic signals. In addition, findings from mouse and other mammalian models have identified similarities between the patterning capabilities of the embryonic notochord and young nucleus pulposus cells, suggesting that mouse is a suitable model system to understand disc development and aging. Future research aimed at understanding the upstream regulators of these developmental signals and the modes by which they regulate disc growth and maintenance will likely provide mechanistic insights into disc growth and aging. Further, such findings will likely provide insights relevant to the development of effective therapies for treatment of back pain and reversing the disc degenerative process. This article is categorized under: Birth Defects > Organ Anomalies Vertebrate Organogenesis > Musculoskeletal and Vascular Adult Stem Cells, Tissue Renewal, and Regeneration > Regeneration Adult Stem Cells, Tissue Renewal, and Regeneration > Stem Cells and Aging.

Latest advances in intervertebral disc development and progenitor cells.

This paper is a concise review aiming to assemble the most relevant topics presented by the authors at ORS-Philadelphia Spine Research Society Fourth International Spine Research Symposium. It centers on the latest advances in disc development, its main structural entities, and the populating cells, with emphasis on the advances in pivotal molecular pathways responsible for forming the intervertebral discs (IVD). The objective of finding and emphasizing pathways and mechanisms that function to control tissue formation is to identify and to explore modifications occurring during normal aging, disease, and tissue repair. Thus, to comprehend that the cellular and molecular basis of tissue degeneration are crucial in the study of the dynamic interplay that includes cell-cell communication, gene regulation, and growth factors required to form a healthy and functional tissue during normal development.

Whole-genome sequencing identifies EN1 as a determinant of bone density and fracture.

The extent to which low-frequency (minor allele frequency (MAF) between 1-5%) and rare (MAF ≤ 1%) variants contribute to complex traits and disease in the general population is mainly unknown. Bone mineral density (BMD) is highly heritable, a major predictor of osteoporotic fractures, and has been previously associated with common genetic variants, as well as rare, population-specific, coding variants. Here we identify novel non-coding genetic variants with large effects on BMD (ntotal = 53,236) and fracture (ntotal = 508,253) in individuals of European ancestry from the general population. Associations for BMD were derived from whole-genome sequencing (n = 2,882 from UK10K (ref. 10); a population-based genome sequencing consortium), whole-exome sequencing (n = 3,549), deep imputation of genotyped samples using a combined UK10K/1000 Genomes reference panel (n = 26,534), and de novo replication genotyping (n = 20,271). We identified a low-frequency non-coding variant near a novel locus, EN1, with an effect size fourfold larger than the mean of previously reported common variants for lumbar spine BMD (rs11692564(T), MAF = 1.6%, replication effect size = +0.20 s.d., Pmeta = 2 × 10(-14)), which was also associated with a decreased risk of fracture (odds ratio = 0.85; P = 2 × 10(-11); ncases = 98,742 and ncontrols = 409,511). Using an En1(cre/flox) mouse model, we observed that conditional loss of En1 results in low bone mass, probably as a consequence of high bone turnover. We also identified a novel low-frequency non-coding variant with large effects on BMD near WNT16 (rs148771817(T), MAF = 1.2%, replication effect size = +0.41 s.d., Pmeta = 1 × 10(-11)). In general, there was an excess of association signals arising from deleterious coding and conserved non-coding variants. These findings provide evidence that low-frequency non-coding variants have large effects on BMD and fracture, thereby providing rationale for whole-genome sequencing and improved imputation reference panels to study the genetic architecture of complex traits and disease in the general population.