Characterization and removal of microplastics in the Guheshwori Wastewater Treatment Plant, Nepal.

Contamination of river water systems by microplastic particles (MPPs) is one of the emerging global environmental concerns with potentially widespread ecological, socioeconomic, and health implications. A wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) processes and treats wastewater to remove pollutants and release safe water into the environment. There has been limited research on the characterization of microplastics and their removal in WWTP in South Asia. In this work, we report on the characterization of microplastics in wastewater and sludge samples (n = 300) from Guheshwori WWTP located on the bank of the Bagmati River in Kathmandu city, Nepal representing inlet, secondary aeration tank (SAT), outlet, and sludge from November 2021 to November 2022. On average, we detected 31.2 ± 17.3 MPPs/L, 11.2 ± 9.4 MPPs/L, 8.5 ± 5.6 MPPs/L, and 6.6 ± 4.8 MPPs/g in the samples collected from inlet, SAT, outlet, and sludge, respectively. Commonly found MPPs were in the form of fiber, fragments, foam, and pellets. Largely, MPPs were red, yellow, white, blue, and black. Among the 44 µm - 150 µm, 150 µm - 500 µm and 500 µm - 5 mm categories of size fractions, the most dominant fractions were 500 µm - 150 µm in inlet, SAT, and sludge, and 150 µm - 44 µm in the outlet sampling unit. The Guheshwori WWTP was able to remove 72.5 % of MPPs on average, that mostly occurred in the inlet. The effluent released into the river and the sludge still contained a significant number of MPPs.

Analysis of the effects of in-situ chemical oxidation on microbial activity using Pseudomonas putida F1.

In-situ chemical oxidation is an effective groundwater remediation approach for delivering oxidants to the subsurface environment where various contaminants of concern, natural organic matter, and other reduced species within the soil consume the oxidants. The addition of these oxidants alters microbial activity changing the physical and chemical structure of the soil. This paper studied the effects of chemical oxidation on microbial activity with and without toluene. Several oxidants were used as part of the study: sodium percarbonate, hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, and sodium persulfate evaluated at low, medium, and high concentrations. A series of biometer experiments seeded with microbe Pseudomonas putida F1 and soil sample and aqueous toluene solution for each oxidant was monitored by CO2 production as a function of incubation days to evaluate the effects of oxidation on the microbial activity. Of the oxidants tested, permanganate oxidation resulted in the highest increase in microbial activity post oxidation based on CO2 production both with and without the addition of toluene. The other oxidants exhibited a direct correlation between oxidant concentration and the change in permanganate chemical oxidant demand of the soil. However, there was no correlation between oxidant concentration and microbial activity. Each of the oxidants was shown to increase CO2 yield except for sodium percarbonate, which had an adverse effect on microbial activity. It is likely that the increased microbial activity associated with permanganate oxidation was the result of chemical reactions between the oxidant and natural organic matter in the soil.

Assessment of environmental policy implementation in solid waste management in Kathmandu, Nepal.

In Nepal, full-fledged environmental legislation was rare before the democratic constitution of 1990. The first law covering the environment and sustainability was the Environment Protection Act 1997. While the Solid Waste Act was introduced in 1987, the problem of solid waste management still surfaces in Kathmandu. In order to understand the bedrock of this unrelenting failure in solid waste management, the manuscript digs deeper into policy implementation by dissecting solid waste rules, environmental legislations, relevant local laws, and solid waste management practices in Kathmandu, Nepal. A very rich field study that included surveys, interviews, site visits, and literature review provided the basis for the article. The study shows that volumes of new Nepalese rules are crafted without effective enforcement of their predecessors and there is a frequent power struggle between local government bodies and central authority in implementing the codes and allocating resources in solid waste management. The study concludes that Kathmandu does not require any new instrument to address solid waste problems; instead, it needs creation of local resources, execution of local codes, and commitment from central government to allow free exercise of these policies.

Passive remediation of coalbed natural gas co-produced water using zeolite.

Coalbed natural gas (CBNG) co-produced waters can contain sodium (Na(+)) concentrations that may be environmentally detrimental if discharged to receiving bodies of water or applied to land surfaces. A field demonstration and companion laboratory studies were conducted to evaluate the use of a Bear River zeolite (BR-zeolite) for mitigating impacts associated with Na(+) in CBNG waters. Bench-scale kinetic and adsorption isotherm studies were performed to determine both the rate and extent of sodium Na(+) adsorption and assess the effects of bicarbonate (HCO3(-)) and chloride (Cl(-)) anions. Results of these studies showed that the adsorption of Na(+) on BR-zeolite followed the Langmuir adsorption model with maximum adsorption equal to 21 and 18 g Na(+)/kg zeolite with 0.0012 and 0.0006 L/mg Langmuir coefficients (KL) for sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride, respectively. The kinetics study indicated that the sorption of Na(+) was inversely related to the size of the zeolite particles with significantly greater adsorption for smaller particles. The field demonstration evaluated the effectiveness of BR-zeolite for mitigating infiltration losses from Na(+) in CBNG waters. The field site utilized 12 open boreholes, each installed to a depth of approximately 1.8 m. Each borehole was lined with a 3.0 m long, 15 cm diameter schedule 40 PVC pipe and fitted with an automatic data logging pressure transducer for measuring water levels over time. The BR-zeolite was found to mitigate much of the deleterious effect that high sodium adsorption ratio (SAR = 27 (mol/m(3))(1/2)) CBNG co-produced water had on soil permeabilities.

Municipal solid waste generation in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Waste stream characteristics must be understood to tackle waste management problems in Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC), Nepal. Three-stage stratified cluster sampling was used to evaluate solid waste data collected from 336 households in KMC. This information was combined with data collected regarding waste from restaurants, hotels, schools and streets. The study found that 497.3 g capita(-1) day(-1) of solid waste was generated from households and 48.5, 113.3 and 26.1 kg facility(-1) day(-1) of waste was generated from restaurants, hotels and schools, respectively. Street litter measured 69.3 metric tons day(-1). The average municipal solid waste generation rate was 523.8 metric tons day(-1) or 0.66 kg capita(-1) day(-1) as compared to the 320 metric tons day(-1) reported by the city. The coefficient of correlation between the number of people and the amount of waste produced was 0.94. Key household waste constituents included 71% organic wastes, 12% plastics, 7.5% paper and paper products, 5% dirt and construction debris and 1% hazardous wastes. Although the waste composition varied depending on the source, the composition analysis of waste from restaurants, hotels, schools and streets showed a high percentage of organic wastes. These numbers suggest a greater potential for recovery of organic wastes via composting and there is an opportunity for recycling. Because there is no previous inquiry of this scale in reporting comprehensive municipal solid waste generation in Nepal, this study can be treated as a baseline for other Nepalese municipalities.

Report: Searching for a way to sustainability: technical and policy analyses of solid waste issues in Kathmandu.

Kathmandu Metropolitan City has attempted to reorganize its solid waste management a number of times. The German Technical and Financial Aid Organization led early efforts that were followed by a number of more recent experiments that left the city with an unsustainable solid waste management system following the termination of foreign aid. To examine this failure, the research team evaluated household surveys, field observations, interviews, and other primary and secondary information within the context of technical, social, and institutional analyses. The survey results show that the solid waste collection rates are far below the 90% claimed by the metropolis and street sweeping consumes approximately 51% of its solid waste budget. As a result of the relatively low collection rates the city residents are encouraged to dump waste into public lands. Consequently, too much of the city's resources are focused on sweeping rather than collection. Kathmandu needs to recognize informal waste picking, privatize, use local techniques, build capacity, promote bottom-up and participatory styles of management, and regulate policies to maintain solid waste management.

Use of stratified cluster sampling for efficient estimation of solid waste generation at household level.

Relatively few studies have been performed to characterize municipal solid waste (MSW) at household level. This is due in part to the difficulties involved with collecting the data and selecting an appropriate statistical sample size. The previous studies identified in this paper have used statistical tools appropriate for analysing data collected at a material recovery facility or landfill site. This study demonstrates a statistically sound and efficient approach for characterizing MSW at the household level. Moreover, a household approach also allowed for consideration of the socio-economic conditions, level of waste generation, geography, and demography. The study utilized two-stage cluster sampling within strata in Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC) to measure MSW for 2 weeks. In KMC, the average household solid waste generation was 161.2 g capita( -1) day(- 1)with an average generation rate between 137.7 and 184.6 g capita(-1) day(-1) for a 95% confidence interval and 14.5% relative margin of error. The results show a positive relation between income and waste production rate. Organic waste was the biggest portion of MSW, and hazardous waste was the smallest of the total. Sample size considerations suggest that 273 households are required in KMC to attain a 10% relative margin of error with a 95% confidence interval.