Investigation of the protective effect of anzer propolis in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury.

OBJECTIVE: Globally, stroke is the leading cause of disability and death. With the use of thrombolytic therapy, reperfusion injury, and its consequences came to the fore. We aimed to find out how anzer propolis, which can only be obtained in Turkey's Eastern Black Sea region, affected ischemia-reperfusion injury using biochemical and histological techniques. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 32 female Wistar albino rats were divided into 4 groups, including a control group. Three of the groups underwent 30 minutes of induced ischemia via clamping of the common carotid artery, followed by ischemia-reperfusion injury through the release of the clamp. One group received no treatment, another received oral administration of 100 mg/kg of anzer propolis one hour before surgery, and the third group received oral administration of 40 mg/kg of acetylsalicylic acid just before surgery. Histopathological examination assessed apoptosis and tissue necrosis, while serum and brain tissue were evaluated for levels of nerve growth factor (NGF), Interlokin 1ß (IL-1ß), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), total antioxidant capacity (TAS), and total oxidant capacity (TOS). RESULTS: Anzer propolis and acetylsalicylic acid significantly reduced hyperemia in vessels, vacuolization in neurons, glial cell infiltration, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) positivity. The anzer propolis group had the highest NGF levels. The anzer propolis and acetylsalicylic acid groups had lower levels of TNF-a and IL-6 in the brain tissue than the ischemia-reperfusion group, while TAS levels were higher. CONCLUSIONS: The findings obtained in this study suggest that anzer propolis has a neuroprotective effect against ischemia-reperfusion injury and will have beneficial effects on neurodegeneration. We believe our findings will contribute to the clinical treatment of ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Graphically Hearing: Enhancing Understanding of Geospatial Data through an Integrated Auditory and Visual Experience.

Effective presentation of data is critical to a users understanding of it. In this manuscript, we explore research challenges associated with presenting large geospatial datasets through a multimodal experience. We also suggest an interaction schema that enhances users cognition of geographic information through a user-driven display that visualizes and sonifies geospatial data.

Ameliorative effect of resveratrol on testicular oxidative stress, spermatological parameters and DNA damage in glyphosate-based herbicide-exposed rats.

In this study, the reproductive impacts of being exposed to glyphosate (GLF) and the protective impacts of resveratrol (RES) were assessed in 28 Wistar male rats, which were equally separated into four groups. Control group were fed normal diet without GLF or RES, group II received normal feed containing 20 mg kg-1 daily-1 RES, group III received normal feed containing 375 mg kg-1 daily-1 GLF, and group IV received normal feed containing 375 mg kg-1 daily-1 GLF+20 mg kg-1 daily-1 RES. GLF administration decreased sperm motility, sperm plasma membrane integrity, glutathione level and superoxide dismutase in the testicular tissue of rats. On the other hand, abnormal sperm rate, malondialdehyde level, and DNA damage were detected to be high in the group treated with GLF. The findings indicate that RES protects spermatological parameters and DNA damage, decreases GLF-induced lipid peroxidation, improves the antioxidant defence mechanism and regenerates tissue damage in the testis of rats.

Pathological Investigation of Childhood Foreskin: Are Lichen Sclerosus and Phimosis Common?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate histopathological results of foreskin removed during circumcision in the pediatric age group and the relationship between these and the degree of phimosis. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. PLACE AND DURATION OF STUDY: Department of Urology, Samsun Training and Research Hospital, Samsun, Turkey, from June to December 2014. METHODOLOGY: Male children undergoing planned circumcision were examined for the presence and degree of phimosis which was recorded before the operation. After circumcision, the preputial skin was dermatopathologically investigated. Pathological investigation carefully evaluated findings such as acute inflammation, chronic inflammation, increased pigmentation and atrophy in addition to findings of Lichen Sclerosus (LS) in all specimens. The pathological findings obtained were classified by degree of phimosis and evaluated. RESULTS: The average age of the 140 children was 6.58 ±2.35 years. While 61 (43.6%) children did not have phimosis, 79 (56.4%) patients had different degrees of phimosis. Classic LS was not identified in any patient. In a total of 14 (10%) children, early period findings of LS were discovered. The frequency of LS with phimosis was 12.6%, without phimosis was 6.5% (p=0.39). The incidence of histopathologically normal skin in non-phimosis and phimosis groups was 37.7% and 22.7%, respectively. In total, 41 (29.3%) of the 140 cases had totally normal foreskin. CONCLUSION: Important dermatoses such as LS may be observed in foreskin with or without phimosis. The presence of phimosis may be an aggravating factor in the incidence of these dermatoses.

Effects of curcumin on methyl methanesulfonate damage to mouse kidney.

Methylmethane sulfonate (MMS) is an alkylating agent that may react with DNA and damage it. We investigated histological changes and apoptosis caused by MMS and the effects of curcumin on MMS treated mouse kidneys. Twenty-four mice were divided into four equal groups: controls injected with saline, a group injected with 40 mg/kg MMS, a group injected with 40 mg/kg MMS and given 100 mg/kg curcumin by gavage, and a group given 100 mg/kg curcumin by gavage. MMS caused congestion and vacuole formation, and elevated the apoptotic index significantly, but had no other effect on kidney tissue. Curcumin improved the congestion and vacuole formation caused by MMS and decreased the apoptotic index. Curcumin administered with MMS appears to decrease the deleterious effects of MMS on the kidney.

Evaluation of galectin-3 levels in acute coronary syndrome.

Galectin-3 is a new biomarker that is assumed to reflect fibrogenesis and inflammation. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the levels of galectin-3 in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and the relation of galectin-3 to the burden of atherosclerosis. Nineteen patients with ACS who underwent coronary angiography and 17 age-matched healthy controls were enrolled. The burden of atherosclerosis was assessed with Gensini score and with the number of involved vessels. Galectin-3 levels were measured on admission by using ELISA. The mean age of the cohort was 62.8±10.6 and 56% of the patients were male. Compared to control group, median galectin-3 levels were significantly higher in ACS patients (0.77ng/mL [0.50-1.19] vs. 0.51ng/mL [0.41-0.78], P=0.01). Patients were classified into three groups according to the number of involved vessels. Median galectin-3 levels did not differ significantly among groups (one vessel: 0.68ng/mL [0.55-0.74], two vessels: 0.67ng/mL [0.46-1.84], three vessels 0.90ng/mL [0.53-1.38], P=0.62). There was a strong correlation between galectin-3 levels and Gensini score (r=0.625, P=0.004). In conclusion, galectin-3 levels were elevated in patients with ACS and there was a strong correlation between galectin-3 levels and Gensini score.

Ameliorative effect of polydatin on oxidative stress-mediated testicular damage by chronic arsenic exposure in rats.

Arsenic causes lipid peroxidation leading to alterations in antioxidant status in organisms. In this study, the reproductive effects of chronic exposure to arsenic and the protective effects of polydatin (PD) were evaluated in 35 Wistar male rats, which were divided equally into five groups. The control group received a normal diet and tap water, arsenic (100 mg l(-1) , approximately 1/50 of oral LD50 ) was given via drinking water to experimental groups except control group, and PD was orally given to the other groups at dose of 50, 100 and 200 mg kg(-1) for 60 days. Arsenic administration decreased sperm motility, glutathione level, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in testicular tissue of rats. In contrast, malondialdehyde level and DNA damage were found to be high levels in arsenic-treated group. Histopathologically, it was observed that decreased sperm concentration and degeneration of Sertoli cells in testicular tissue. PD administration, partially 200 mg kg(-1) , reversed arsenic-induced lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, antioxidant enzyme activity and cell integrity in testis of rats. These results demonstrate that PD decreases arsenic-induced lipid peroxidation, enhances the antioxidant defence mechanism and regenerates tissue damage in testis of rats.

Probability distribution function-based classification of structural MRI for the detection of Alzheimer's disease.

High-dimensional classification methods have been a major target of machine learning for the automatic classification of patients who suffer from Alzheimer's disease (AD). One major issue of automatic classification is the feature-selection method from high-dimensional data. In this paper, a novel approach for statistical feature reduction and selection in high-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data based on the probability distribution function (PDF) is introduced. To develop an automatic computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) technique, this research explores the statistical patterns extracted from structural MRI (sMRI) data on four systematic levels. First, global and local differences of gray matter in patients with AD compared to healthy controls (HCs) using the voxel-based morphometric (VBM) technique with 3-Tesla 3D T1-weighted MRI are investigated. Second, feature extraction based on the voxel clusters detected by VBM on sMRI and voxel values as volume of interest (VOI) is used. Third, a novel statistical feature-selection process is employed, utilizing the PDF of the VOI to represent statistical patterns of the respective high-dimensional sMRI sample. Finally, the proposed feature-selection method for early detection of AD with support vector machine (SVM) classifiers compared to other standard feature selection methods, such as partial least squares (PLS) techniques, is assessed. The performance of the proposed technique is evaluated using 130 AD and 130 HC MRI data from the ADNI dataset with 10-fold cross validation(1). The results show that the PDF-based feature selection approach is a reliable technique that is highly competitive with respect to the state-of-the-art techniques in classifying AD from high-dimensional sMRI samples.

Acute-phase responses in cattle infected with hydatid cysts and microbial agents.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of hydatid cysts and microbial agents on the acute-phase response in cattle. Twenty-seven cattle with hydatid cysts and eight apparently healthy cattle comprised the study and control groups, respectively. Parasitological, microbiological, histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations of the liver and lungs were undertaken, and 49 of these organs were infected with cysts. In 14 of 31 (45.1%) livers and 10 of 18 (55.5%) lungs microbial growth was observed. The most frequent species occurring in the liver were Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium spp. and Campylobacter spp., whereas in the lungs the most common species was Candida spp., followed by Streptococcus spp., Mannheimia haemolytica, Corynebacterium spp., Micrococcus spp. and S. aureus. The concentration of serum interleukin (IL-6) in infected cattle, 455.35 ± 39.68 pg/ml, was significantly higher than that of 83.02 ± 17.87 pg/ml in the control group (P0.05). The highest concentrations of IL-6 were detected in serum of the cattle where microbial growth had been detected, followed by cattle infected with bacteria + Trichostrongylus sp. (P< 0.001). Consequently, SAA showed an important increase in the group infected with hydatid cysts, whereas haptoglobin level decreased. It was noticed that IL-6, like SAA, had a significant role in hydatid cyst infection. Therefore IL-6 and SAA appear to be major markers in the detection of infection of cattle with hydatid cysts.

Exercise-induced improvements in myocardial antioxidant capacity: the antioxidant players and cardioprotection.

Endurance exercise training is known to promote beneficial adaptations to numerous tissues including the heart. Indeed, endurance exercise training results in a cardioprotective phenotype that resists injury during an ischemia-reperfusion (IR) insult. Because IR-induced cardiac injury is due, in part, to increased production of radicals and other reactive oxygen species, many studies have explored the impact of exercise training on myocardial antioxidant capacity. Unfortunately, the literature describing the effects of exercise on the cardiac antioxidant capacity is widely inconsistent. Nonetheless, a growing body of evidence indicates that regular bouts of endurance exercise promote an increase in the expression of both superoxide dismutase 1 and 2 in cardiac mitochondria. Moreover, emerging evidence suggests that exercise also increases accessory antioxidant enzymes in the heart. Importantly, robust evidence indicates that as few as five consecutive days of endurance exercise training results in a cardiac phenotype that resists IR-induced arrhythmias, myocardial stunning, and infarction. Further, mechanistic studies indicate that exercise-induced increases in mitochondrial superoxide dismutase 2 play a key role in this adaptation. Future studies are required to provide a complete picture regarding the cellular adaptations that are responsible for exercise-induced cardioprotection.

The effects of menstrual cycle on the knee joint position sense: preliminary study.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of menstrual cycle on proprioception by using the active knee joint position sense test (JPST). The 19 healthy women (ages between 20 years and 27 years) who have normal regular menstrual cycle were included in the study. We applied JPSTs at two different directions throughout the three different phases of the menstrual cycle, i.e. menstrual, follicular, and early luteal in dominant knees. When we started from flexion (90 degrees ), target angles were 70 degrees , 50 degrees , and 30 degrees and we started from extension (0 degrees ), target angles were 20 degrees , 40 degrees and 60 degrees . The absolute reposition errors from the target angles have been evaluated. Results have shown that reposition errors from the target angle at 40 degrees , 50 degrees and 70 degrees of knee angles were higher in the menstrual phase than that of the follicular phase (P<0.05). In addition, higher value of reposition error from the target angle at 40 degrees was found in the menstrual phase compared to luteal phase (P<0.05). In conclusion, we have demonstrated that active JPST was significantly reduced in the menstruation period.

Relation between foot arch index and ankle strength in elite gymnasts: a preliminary study.

BACKGROUND: Gymnasts usually start intensive training from early childhood. The impact of such strenuous training on the musculoskeletal system is not clear. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the relation between muscle strength of the ankle joint and foot structure in gymnasts. METHODS: The study population comprised 20 high level male gymnasts and 17 non-athletic healthy male controls. Arch indices were measured using a podoscope. Ankle plantar/dorsiflexion and eversion/inversion strengths were measured using a Biodex 3 dynamometer within the protocol of concentric/concentric five repetitions at 30 degrees /s velocity. RESULTS: The mean arch index of the right and left foot of the gymnasts and the controls were respectively: 31.4 (29.1), 34.01 (34.65); 60.01 (30.3), 63.75 (32.27). Both the arch indices and the ankle dorsiflexion strengths were lower in the gymnasts. Although no correlation was found between strength and arch index in the control group, a significant correlation was observed between eversion strengths and arch indices of the gymnasts (r = 0.41, p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Whether or not the findings indicate sport specific adaptation or less training of the ankle dorsiflexors, prospective data are required to elucidate the tendency for pes cavus in gymnasts, for whom stabilisation of the foot is a priority.

Multiple osteochondroses and avulsion fracture of anterior superior iliac spine in a soccer player.

Apophysitis describes a chronic traction injury at the insertion site of a tendon. There is a gradual onset of pain with no clear history of injury. Without adequate preventive methods, an avulsion fracture may result. The case is here reported of an apophyseal avulsion fracture of the anterior superior iliac spine in an adolescent caused by playing football before the end of treatment for apophysitis. An open reduction and internal fixation was performed followed by a rehabilitation programme. No complications occurred, and the patient had returned to his previous level of sporting activity after six weeks.

Differences in sole arch indices in various sports.

BACKGROUND: There are controversial data about the relation between foot morphology and athletic injuries of the lower extremity. Studies in soldiers have shown some relationship, whereas those involving athletes have not shown any significant relationship. The reason for these differences is not clear. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of various sports on sole arch indices (AIs). METHOD: A total of 116 elite male athletes (24 soccer players, 23 wrestlers, 19 weightlifters, 30 handball players, and 20 gymnasts) and 30 non-athletic men were included in this cross sectional study. Images of both soles were taken in a podoscope and transferred to a computer using a digital still camera. AIs were calculated from the stored images. RESULTS: The AI of the right sole of the gymnasts was significantly lower than that of the soccer players, wrestlers, and non-athletic controls (p<0.01). The AI of the right sole of the wrestlers was significantly higher than that of the soccer players, handball players, weightlifters, gymnasts, and non-athletic controls (p<0.03). The AI of the left sole of the gymnasts was significantly lower than that of the wrestlers and non-athletic controls (p<0.001). The AI of the left sole of the wrestlers was significantly higher than that of the soccer players, handball players, and gymnasts (p<0.007). The AI of both soles in handball players was significantly lower than those of the non-athletic subjects (p = 0.049). The correlation between the AI of the left and right foot was poor in the soccer players, handball players, and wrestlers (r = 0.31, 0.69, and 0.56 respectively), but was high in the gymnasts, weightlifters, and non-athletic controls (r = 0.96, 0.88, and 0.80 respectively). CONCLUSION: The AIs of the gymnasts and wrestlers were significantly different from those of other sportsmen studied, and those of the gymnasts and handball players were significantly different from those of non-athletic controls.

Iron, nitric oxide, and myeloperoxidase in asthmatic patients.

Plasma nitric oxide (NO), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and iron (Fe) levels were determined in bronchial asthma. The relations among these parameters in different stages of asthma were interpreted. Their association with airway inflammation observed in patients with bronchial asthma as well as the roles and the contributions to the pathological processes were evaluated. A total of 62 individuals, 32 asthmatics and 30 controls, were included into the scope of this study. Plasma nitric oxide metabolites (NOx) and MPO and Fe levels were determined by the Griess reaction, ELISA, and the automated TPTZ (2,4,6-tri[2-pyridyl]-5-triazine) method, respectively. In the asthmatic individuals, plasma NOx, MPO, and Fe concentrations were 133 +/- 13 microM, 95 +/- 20 ng/ml, and 159 +/- 20 microg/dl, respectively; in the control group these values were 82 +/- 11 microM, 62 +/- 11 ng/ml, and 96 +/- 9 microg/dl. Increased values were detected for plasma MPO (p > 0.05), NOx (p < 0.01), and Fe (p < 0.01) concentrations in asthmatic individuals. Considering the facts that NO modulates the catalytic activity of MPO and induces the expression of heme oxygenase as important contributors to the mechanisms causing free Fe release, it is concluded that elevated NOx, MPO, and Fe levels observed in the asthmatic group act in a concerted manner and appear to be involved in the pathogenesis of asthma.

A case with Pyle type metaphyseal dysplasia: clinical, radiological and histological evaluation.

Pyle type metaphyseal dysplasia is a rare autosomal recessive disease that is primarily affect metaphyses. Here we present a case with Pyle type metaphyseal dysplasia. The characteristic features of the case were metapyhseal broadening with undertubulation and Erlenmeyer flask sign at distal femoral and proximal tibial metaphyses. There were also platyspondyly with biconcave lens appearance of the vertebral bodies, congenital hip dislocation and normal cranium. Bone histopathology showed decreased number of osteoclasts. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case of Pyle type metaphyseal dysplasia from Turkey.

Short-term exercise improves myocardial tolerance to in vivo ischemia-reperfusion in the rat.

These experiments examined the independent effects of short-term exercise and heat stress on myocardial responses during in vivo ischemia-reperfusion (I/R). Female Sprague-Dawley rats (4 mo old) were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups: 1) control, 2) 3 consecutive days of treadmill exercise [60 min/day at 60-70% maximal O2 uptake (VO2 max)], 3) 5 consecutive days of treadmill exercise (60 min/day at 60-70% VO2 max), and 4) whole body heat stress (15 min at 42 degrees C). Twenty-four hours after heat stress or exercise, animals were anesthetized and mechanically ventilated, and the chest was opened by thoracotomy. Coronary occlusion was maintained for 30-min followed by a 30-min period of reperfusion. Compared with control, both heat-stressed animals and exercised animals (3 and 5 days) maintained higher (P < 0.05) left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP), maximum rate of left ventricular pressure development (+dP/dt), and maximum rate of left ventricular pressure decline (-dP/dt) at all measurement periods during both ischemia and reperfusion. No differences existed between heat-stressed and exercise groups in LVDP, +dP/dt, and -dP/dt at any time during ischemia or reperfusion. Both heat stress and exercise resulted in an increase (P < 0.05) in the relative levels of left ventricular heat shock protein 72 (HSP72). Furthermore, exercise (3 and 5 days) increased (P < 0.05) myocardial glutathione levels and manganese superoxide dismutase activity. These data indicate that 3-5 consecutive days of exercise improves myocardial contractile performance during in vivo I/R and that this exercise-induced myocardial protection is associated with an increase in both myocardial HSP72 and cardiac antioxidant defenses.

Exercise training increases heat shock protein in skeletal muscles of old rats.

PURPOSE: The effects of chronic exercise training on the expression of heat shock protein (HSP) in skeletal muscle of senescent animals are unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of chronic exercise training on skeletal muscle HSP expression in both young and old rats. METHODS: Young adult (3 months) and old (23 months) female Fisher 344 rats were assigned to either a sedentary control or an endurance exercise trained group (N = 6 per group). Exercised animals ran (60 min.d-1, 5 d.wk-1) on a treadmill at approximately 77% VO2peak for 10 wk. After completion of the training program, the soleus (SOL), plantaris (PL), and the red (RG) and white portions (WG) of the gastrocnemius muscles were excised, and citrate synthase (CS) activity and the relative levels of HSP72 were determined. RESULTS: Training resulted in increases (P < 0.05) in VO2peak in both young (67.6 +/- 3.1 vs 86.9 +/- 1.6 mL.kg-1.min-1) and old animals (54.5 +/- 1.8 vs 68.2 +/- 2.2 mL.kg-1.min-1). Training increased CS activity and the relative levels of HSP72 (P < 0.05) in all four skeletal muscles in both young and old animals. Specifically, compared with age-matched sedentary controls, exercise training resulted in increased (P < 0.05) levels of HSP72 in skeletal muscles of both young (SOL + 22%, PL +94%, RG + 44%, WG + 243%) and old animals (SOL +15%, PL +73%, RG +38%, WG +150%). CONCLUSIONS: These findings reveal that the exercise-induced accumulation of HSP72 in skeletal muscle differs between fast and slow muscles. Further, these data indicate that the exercise-induced accumulation of HSP72 in highly oxidative skeletal muscles (SOL and RG) is similar between young and old animals. In contrast, aging is associated with a blunted expression of HSP72 in fast skeletal muscles (PL and WG) in response to chronic exercise.

Comparison of acarbose and gliclazide as first-line agents in patients with type 2 diabetes.

AIM: To compare the effect of acarbose and gliclazide on clinical findings, biochemical parameters and safety in type 2 diabetic patients insufficiently controlled with medical nutrition therapy (MNT). METHODS: Seventy-two patients (age 35-70 years, BMI < or = 35 kg/m2), who had not taken any oral antidiabetic drug previously, were randomised into two groups after a four-week placebo period, and treated for 24 weeks with acarbose (100 mg two to three times daily) and gliclazide (40-80 mg twice daily). The study was open and 57 patients (33 males and 24 females) completed it. MNT was provided for each patient based on personal requirements as defined by a dietitian. The effect of treatment was evaluated by fasting and postprandial (PP) metabolic parameters (blood glucose, insulin and C peptide levels), HbA1c and plasma lipid levels. In addition, side-effects were recorded and clinical examinations performed. RESULTS: Both drugs were effective in reducing of HbA1c, fasting and PP blood glucose levels. However, PP serum insulin levels in the gliclazide group increased more than those in the group treated with acarbose (p = 0.007). Moreover, a small weight reduction was obtained with acarbose treatment but not with gliclazide. Lipid levels were favourably affected by both drugs. Total cholesterol levels decreased in both groups, the decrease only reaching significance in the acarbose group (p = 0.013). However, serum levels of LDL cholesterol decreased in both groups (acarbose and gliclazide, p = 0.033 and p = 0.023, respectively), but the ratio of HDL to LDL cholesterol increased in the acarbose group only (p = 0.045). Both treatments were generally well tolerated. Common complaints in the acarbose group were flatulence and meteorism (29.6%). However, 10.0% of the patients in the gliclazide group reported at least one mild hypoglycaemic episode. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study demonstrate that acarbose and gliclazide were reasonably effective in improving metabolic control in patients insufficiently controlled with diet alone, and both treatments were well tolerated. Because of its effects on weight reduction and PP hyperinsulinaemia, acarbose may be preferred as a first-line drug, particularly in the treatment of overweight type 2 diabetic patients.

Exercise, heat shock proteins, and myocardial protection from I-R injury.

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) play a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and protecting cells during episodes of acute stress. Specifically, HSPs of the 70 kDa family (i.e., HSP72) are important in preventing ischemia-reperfusion induced apoptosis, necrosis, and oxidative injury in a variety of cell types including the cardiac myocyte. Evidence indicates that HSP72 may contribute to cellular protection against a variety of stresses by preventing protein aggregation, assisting in the refolding of damaged proteins, and chaperoning nascent polypeptides along ribosomes. Endurance exercise is a physiological stress that can be used to elevate myocardial levels of HSP72. It is now clear that endurance exercise training can elevate myocardial HSP72 by 400-500% in young adult animals. Importantly, an exercise-induced elevation in myocardial HSPs is associated with a reduction in ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury in the heart. Although it seems likely that exercise-induced elevations in myocardial levels of HSPs play an important role in this protection against an I-R insult, new evidence suggests that other factors may also be involved. This is an important area for future research.