New opportunities for time-resolved imaging using diffraction-limited storage rings.

The advent of diffraction-limited storage rings (DLSRs) has boosted the brilliance or coherent flux by one to two orders of magnitude with respect to the previous generation. One consequence of this brilliance enhancement is an increase in the flux density or number of photons per unit of area and time, which opens new possibilities for the spatiotemporal resolution of X-ray imaging techniques. This paper studies the time-resolved microscopy capabilities of such facilities by benchmarking the ForMAX beamline at the MAX IV storage ring. It is demonstrated that this enhanced flux density using a single harmonic of the source allows micrometre-resolution time-resolved imaging at 2000 tomograms per second and 1.1 MHz 2D acquisition rates using the full dynamic range of the detector system.

Optimization of phase contrast imaging with a nano-focus x-ray tube.

Propagation-based phase contrast imaging with a laboratory x-ray source is a valuable tool for studying samples that show only low absorption contrast, either because of low density, elemental composition, or small feature size. If a propagation distance between sample and detector is introduced and the illumination is sufficiently coherent, the phase shift in the sample will cause additional contrast around interfaces, known as edge enhancement fringes. The strength of this effect depends not only on sample parameters and energy but also on the experimental geometry, which can be optimized accordingly. Recently, x-ray lab sources using transmission targets have become available, which provide very small source sizes in the few hundred nanometer range. This allows the use of a high-magnification geometry with a very short source-sample distance, while still achieving sufficient spatial coherence at the sample position. Moreover, the high geometrical magnification makes it possible to use detectors with a larger pixel size without reducing the image resolution. Here, we explore the influence of magnification on the edge enhancement fringes in such a geometry. We find experimentally and theoretically that the fringes become maximal at a magnification that is independent of the total source-detector distance. This optimal magnification only depends on the source size, the steepness of the sample feature, and the detector resolution. A stronger influence of the sample feature on the optimal magnification compared to low-magnification geometries is observed.

A versatile laboratory setup for high resolution X-ray phase contrast tomography and scintillator characterization.

BACKGROUND: X-ray micro-tomography (µCT) is a powerful non-destructive 3D imaging method applied in many scientific fields. In combination with propagation-based phase-contrast, the method is suitable for samples with low absorption contrast. Phase contrast tomography has become available in the lab with the ongoing development of micro-focused tube sources, but it requires sensitive and high-resolution X-ray detectors. The development of novel scintillation detectors, particularly for microscopy, requires more flexibility than available in commercial tomography systems. OBJECTIVE: We aim to develop a compact, flexible, and versatile µCT laboratory setup that combines absorption and phase contrast imaging as well as the option to use it for scintillator characterization. Here, we present details on the design and implementation of the setup. METHODS: We used the setup for µCT in absorption and propagation-based phase-contrast mode, as well as to study a perovskite scintillator. RESULTS: We show the 2D and 3D performance in absorption and phase contrast mode, as well as how the setup can be used for testing new scintillator materials in a realistic imaging environment. A spatial resolution of around 1.3µm is measured in 2D and 3D. CONCLUSIONS: The setup meets the needs for common absorption µCT applications and offers increased contrast in phase contrast mode. The availability of a versatile laboratory µCT setup allows not only for easy access to tomographic measurements, but also enables a prompt monitoring and feedback beneficial for advances in scintillator fabrication.

Single-Crystalline Perovskite Nanowire Arrays for Stable X-ray Scintillators with Micrometer Spatial Resolution.

X-ray scintillation detectors based on metal halide perovskites have shown excellent light yield, but they mostly target applications with spatial resolution at the tens of micrometers level. Here, we use a one-step solution method to grow arrays of 15-µm-long single-crystalline CsPbBr3 nanowires (NWs) in an AAO (anodized aluminum oxide) membrane template, with nanowire diameters ranging from 30 to 360 nm. The CsPbBr3 nanowires in AAO (CsPbBr3 NW/AAO) show increasing X-ray scintillation efficiency with decreasing nanowire diameter, with a maximum photon yield of ∼5 300 ph/MeV at 30 nm diameter. The CsPbBr3 NW/AAO composites also display high radiation resistance, with a scintillation-intensity decrease of only ∼20-30% after 24 h of X-ray exposure (integrated dose 162 Gyair) and almost no change after ambient storage for 2 months. X-ray images can distinguish line pairs with a spacing of 2 µm for all nanowire diameters, while slanted edge measurements show a spatial resolution of ∼160 lp/mm at modulation transfer function (MTF) = 0.1. The combination of high spatial resolution, radiation stability, and easy fabrication makes these CsPbBr3 NW/AAO scintillators a promising candidate for high-resolution X-ray imaging applications.

X-ray in-line holography and holotomography at the NanoMAX beamline.

Coherent X-ray imaging techniques, such as in-line holography, exploit the high brilliance provided by diffraction-limited storage rings to perform imaging sensitive to the electron density through contrast due to the phase shift, rather than conventional attenuation contrast. Thus, coherent X-ray imaging techniques enable high-sensitivity and low-dose imaging, especially for low-atomic-number (Z) chemical elements and materials with similar attenuation contrast. Here, the first implementation of in-line holography at the NanoMAX beamline is presented, which benefits from the exceptional focusing capabilities and the high brilliance provided by MAX IV, the first operational diffraction-limited storage ring up to approximately 300 eV. It is demonstrated that in-line holography at NanoMAX can provide 2D diffraction-limited images, where the achievable resolution is only limited by the 70 nm focal spot at 13 keV X-ray energy. Also, the 3D capabilities of this instrument are demonstrated by performing holotomography on a chalk sample at a mesoscale resolution of around 155 nm. It is foreseen that in-line holography will broaden the spectra of capabilities of MAX IV by providing fast 2D and 3D electron density images from mesoscale down to nanoscale resolution.

Experimental optimization of X-ray propagation-based phase contrast imaging geometry.

Propagation-based phase contrast imaging (PB-PCI) with an X-ray lab source is a powerful technique to study low absorption samples, e.g. soft tissue or plastics, on the micrometer scale but is often limited by the low flux and coherence of the source. The setup geometry is essential for the performance since there is a trade-off where a short source distance yields a high contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) but a low relative fringe contrast. While theoretical optimization strategies based on Fresnel propagation have been reported, there is a need for experimental testing of these models. Here, we systematically investigate this trade-off experimentally using two different setups with high-resolution detectors: a custom-built system with a Cu X-ray source and a commercial system (Zeiss Xradia) with a W source. The fringe contrast, CNR and fringe separation for a low-absorption test sample were measured for 130 different combinations of magnification and overall distances. We find that these figures-of-merit are sensitive to the magnification and that an optimum can be found that is independent of the overall source-detector distance. In general, we find that the theoretical models show excellent agreement with the measurements. However, this requires the complicated X-ray spectrum to be considered, in particular for the broadband W source.

Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy with efficient X-ray fluorescence detection (STXM-XRF) for biomedical applications in the soft and tender energy range.

Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy, especially in combination with X-ray fluorescence detection (STXM-XRF) in the soft X-ray energy range, is becoming an increasingly important tool for life sciences. Using X-ray fluorescence detection, the study of biochemical mechanisms becomes accessible. As biological matrices generally have a low fluorescence yield and thus a low fluorescence signal, high detector efficiency (e.g. large solid angle) is indispensable for avoiding long measurement times and radiation damage. Here, the new AnImaX STXM-XRF microscope equipped with a large solid angle of detection enabling fast scans and the first proof-of-principle measurements on biomedical samples are described. In addition, characterization measurements for future quantitative elemental imaging are presented.