Determining the prevalence and genetic diversity of plasmid-mediated sulfonamide resistance in Escherichia coli from commercial broiler samples.

Sulfonamides are commonly used antibacterials in commercial poultry, contributing toward the development of multidrug-resistant (MDR) phenotypes among Escherichia coli and that has emerged as global concern. The current study aimed to assess the sulfonamide resistance among isolated E. coli strains among commercial broilers. The bacterial strains were identified from fecal samples (n = 100) using selective media, followed by initial identification based on biochemical profiles. The susceptibility was determined by measuring the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against sulfamethoxazole. The study also evaluated mobile genetic elements (MGEs), the mediators of antibiotic resistance, by amplification of plasmid DNA using specific primer PCR. Additionally, the isolates were subjected to multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis to investigate the genetic diversity among E. coli carrying sulfonamide resistance genes. The results revealed that 58% (58/100) E. coli strains were resistant to sulfonamides, with 36.20% (21/58) of the strains exhibiting an MIC breakpoint ≥512 µg/mL. PCR analysis showed that 42.85% (9/21) of the strains harbored the sul-1 gene, while 38.09% (8/21) carried the sul-2 gene, and 19.04% (4/21) had both genes. No isolate showed the presence of the sul-3 gene. Furthermore, class 1 and class 2 integrons were identified among 80.95% (17/21) and 19.04% (4/21) of the strains, respectively. MLST analysis confirmed that the strains belonged to sequence types (STs) including ST1638, ST155, ST48, ST350, ST23, ST156, and ST746. These findings underscore the diversity among E. coli strains in commercial poultry, which poses a significant risk.

Evaluating the effect of Spirulina platensis on the immune response of broiler chickens to various vaccines and virulent Newcastle disease virus challenge.

This study investigated the efficacy of co-administration of Spirulina platensis (SP) with vaccines on the immune response to Avian influenza (AI), Infectious bronchitis (IB), and Newcastle disease (ND), along with I/M challenging by virulent ND virus (vNDV) genotype VII. 126 one-day-old broiler chicks were allocated into six groups (21 birds/group with three replicates): G1: negative control; G2: positive control; G3: vaccinated, non-SP-supplemented; G4: vaccinated, SP-supplemented (0.1%); G5: vaccinated, SP-supplemented (0.3%); and G6: vaccinated, SP-supplemented (0.5%). G2-6 were challenged with a velogenic NDV genotype VII virus. Dietary SP administration prevented the ND-induced mortality compared to G2 (52.4%) and G3 (14.3%), in addition to alleviating the clinical disease. G3-6 showed significant improvement in body weight loss% and FCR during two weeks post vNDV challenge (pc), and the overall FCR (2.64 ± 0.28, 1.56 ± 0.03, 1.60 ± 0.05, 1.53 ± 0.04, and 1.54 ± 0.03 for G2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, respectively) (P<0.05). On the challenging day, the ND-HI titer (log2) of G3 (5.44 ± 0.24) was numerically higher than G6 (4.20 ± 0.55) and lower than G4 (6.10 ± 0.34) and G5 (6.00 ± 0.28). On the 10th day pc, ND-HI titer in G4-6 was numerically lower in a dose-dependent manner than that of G3, suggesting an antiviral efficacy of SP. G4-6 had lower viral shedding titer than G2 and G3 (P<0.05). In G3-6, viral shedding was reduced by 15, 27, 24, and 33.6%, respectively. In addition, the histopathological lesions in the trachea, lung, and spleen were severe in G2, moderately reduced in G3, and more relieved in G4-6. At three weeks after vaccination, the HI antibody titer of AIH5 was significantly higher after SP administration, especially at the 0.3% level, compared to the vaccine alone (P<0.05), demonstrating an immune-stimulating effect. In conclusion, dietary administration of SP, particularly a dose of 0.3%, for vaccinated chickens against NDV exerted an antiinflammatory and antiviral effects by preventing deaths, alleviating clinical disease and weight loss, and decreasing viral shedding post heterologous NDV challenge.

Pathogenicity of H5N8 avian influenza virus in chickens and in duck breeds and the role of MX1 and IFN-α in infection outcome and transmission to contact birds.

This study examined the pathogenicity, immunogenicity, and transmission potential of the H5N8 HPAI clade 2.3.4.4b virus in three breeds of ducks and in broiler chickens. Chickens, Muscovy, Pekin, and Mallard ducks (n = 10) received a dose of 6 log10 EID50 of HPAIV H5N8 directly. Nine contact chickens were introduced to each group on the day of infection. All infected chickens died, with MDT of 7.6 days. Muscovy and Pekin ducks died by 11.1% and 10%, respectively, with MDTs of 7 and 6 days. No Mallards died but showed more severe clinical disease than Pekin ducks. Mallards had the highest MX1 gene expression in the lung and spleen and IFN-α in the spleen. MX1 expression levels were lower in the spleen and lung of Pekin ducks, in the spleen of chickens and in the lung of Muscovy ducks than in noninfected controls. However, viral shedding was higher in ducks than in chickens and was highest in Mallards. 66.7% of chickens placed in contact with infected chickens died and 77.8% of in-contact chickens to infected three duck breeds died. In conclusion, there was a diversity in sensitivity and immunogenicity for HPAIV H5N8 among duck breeds, resulting in diverse infection outcomes and transmissibility to contacts. This study provides duck/chicken interface models for HPAIV transmission to poultry.

Role of available COVID-19 vaccines in reducing deaths and perspective for next generation vaccines and therapies to counter emerging viral variants: an update.

The COVID-19 disease wreaked havoc all over the world causing more than 6 million deaths out of over 519 million confirmed cases. It not only disturbed the human race health-wise but also caused huge economic losses and social disturbances. The utmost urgency to counter pandemic was to develop effective vaccines as well as treatments that could reduce the incidences of infection, hospitalization and deaths. The most known vaccines that could help in managing these parameters are Oxford-AstraZeneca (AZD1222), Pfizer-BioNTech (BNT162b2), Moderna (mRNA-1273) and Johnson & Johnson (Ad26.COV2.S). The effectiveness of AZD1222 vaccine in reducing deaths is 88% in the age group 40-59 years, touching 100% in the age group 16-44 years & 65-84 years. BNT162b2 vaccine also did well in reducing deaths due to COVID-19 (95% in the age group 40-49 years and 100% in the age group 16-44 years. Similarly, mRNA-1273 vaccine showed potential in reducing COVID-19 deaths with effectiveness ranging from 80.3 to 100% depending upon age group of the vaccinated individuals. Ad26.COV2.S vaccine was also 100% effective in reducing COVID-19 deaths. The SARS-CoV-2 emerging variants have emphasized the need of booster vaccine doses to enhance protective immunity in vaccinated individuals. Additionally, therapeutic effectiveness of Molnupiravir, Paxlovid and Evusheld are also providing resistance against the spread of COVID-19 disease as well as may be effective against emerging variants. This review highlights the progress in developing COVID-19 vaccines, their protective efficacies, advances being made to design more efficacious vaccines, and presents an overview on advancements in developing potent drugs and monoclonal antibodies for countering COVID-19 and emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2 including the most recently emerged and highly mutated Omicron variant.

Road traffic accidental injuries and deaths: A neglected global health issue.

Across the world, traffic accidents cause major health problems and are of concern to health institutions; nearly 1.35 million people are killed or disabled in traffic accidents every year. In 2019, 93% of road traffic injury-related mortality occurred in low- and middle-income countries with an estimated burden of 1.3 million deaths. This issue is growing; by 2030, road traffic injuries will be the seventh leading cause of death globally. The present report highlights an overview of road traffic accidents, accidental injuries, and deaths, associated risk factors, important precautions, safety rules, and counteracting management strategies. In modern cultures, road accidents are a major source of death and serious injuries. Road traffic injuries are a substantial yet underserved public health issue around the world that requires immediate attention. To prevent accidents in the long term, it is essential to adopt conservative preventive measures that can minimize collisions and promote a safe road environment.

Monkeypox (mpox) in immunosuppressed patients.

The World Health Assembly declared that smallpox had been completely eradicated from the human population in 1980. Monkeypox, a zoonosis native to damp forested regions in West and Central Africa, is the illness that is most comparable to smallpox clinically and immunologically. Both illnesses could be prevented by the smallpox vaccine. Although the monkeypox virus is a less effective human disease than the smallpox virus, it could now spread among human populations if smallpox had not been eradicated and population-wide immunity had not been developed. A health warning on severe monkeypox in people who are immunocompromised due to Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other illnesses was released by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on September 29, 2022. The advise does not specifically include primary immunodeficiency, but it does define other immunocompromising disorders as "having autoimmune disease with immunodeficiency as a clinical component". The documented severe signs of monkeypox include widespread rashes with secondary fungal or bacterial skin infections or tissue death (necrosis), intestine obstruction, and difficulties with the heart, lungs, urinary system, and nervous system. Both those with healthy immune systems and those with weakened immune systems, such as those who are immunosuppressed, older people, children, etc., have encountered serious health issues, but the latter group is more likely to do so. According to the advisory, "of the people with severe monkeypox manifestations for whom CDC has been consulted, the majority have had HIV with CD4 counts 200 cells/ml, indicating substantial immunosuppression". The current article goes into great detail about monkeypox disease occurring in immunocompromised patients and preventive guidelines.

Potential of Spirulina platensis as a feed supplement for poultry to enhance growth performance and immune modulation.

Increase in drug resistance as well as ineffective immunization efforts against various pathogens (viruses, bacteria and fungi) pose a significant threat to the poultry industry. Spirulina is one of the most widely used natural ingredients which is becoming popular as a nutritional supplement in humans, animals, poultry and aquaculture. It contains protein, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, pigments, and essential amino acids. Moreover, it also has considerable quantities of unique natural antioxidants including polyphenols, carotenoids, and phycocyanin. Dietary supplementation of Spirulina can beneficially affect gut microbial population, serum biochemical parameters, and growth performance of chicken. Additionally, it contains polyphenolic contents having antibacterial effects. Spirulina extracts might inhibit bacterial motility, invasion, biofilm formation, and quorum sensing in addition to acting directly on the bacterium by weakening and making the bacterial cell walls more porous, subsequently resulting in cytoplasmic content leakage. Additionally, Spirulina has shown antiviral activities against certain common human or animal viruses and this capability can be considered to exhibit potential benefits against avian viruses also. Spirulan, a calcium-rich internal polysaccharide of Spirulina, is potentially responsible for its antiviral effect through inhibiting the entry of several viruses into the host cells, boosting the production of nitric oxide in macrophages, and stimulating the generation of cytokines. Comparatively a greater emphasis has been given to the immune modulatory effects of Spirulina as a feed additive in chicken which might boost disease resistance and improve survival and growth rates, particularly under stress conditions. This manuscript reviews biological activities and immune-stimulating properties of Spirulina and its potential use as a dietary supplement in poultry to enhance growth, gut health and disease resistance.

Corrigendum: Epidemiology, pathology, prevention, and control strategies of inclusion body hepatitis and hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome in poultry: A comprehensive review.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.963199.].

Epidemiology, pathology, prevention, and control strategies of inclusion body hepatitis and hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome in poultry: A comprehensive review.

Infection with fowl adenoviruses (FAdVs) can result in a number of syndromes in the production of chicken, including inclusion body hepatitis (IBH), hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome (HHS), and others, causing enormous economic losses around the globe. FAdVs are divided into 12 serotypes and five species (A-E; 1-8a and 8b-11). Most avian species are prone to infection due to the widespread distribution of FAdV strains. The genus aviadenovirus, which is a member of the adenoviridae family, is responsible for both IBH and HHS. The most popular types of transmission are mechanical, vertical, and horizontal. Hepatitis with basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies distinguishes IBH, but the buildup of translucent or straw-colored fluid in the pericardial sac distinguishes HHS. IBH and HHS require a confirmatory diagnosis because their clinical symptoms and postmortem abnormalities are not unique to those conditions. Under a microscope, the presence of particular lesions and inclusion bodies may provide clues. Traditional virus isolation in avian tissue culture is more delicate than in avian embryonated eggs. Additionally, aviadenovirus may now be quickly and precisely detected using molecular diagnostic tools. Preventive techniques should rely on efficient biosecurity controls and immunize breeders prior to production in order to protect progeny. This current review gives a general overview of the current local and global scenario of IBH, and HHS brought on by FAdVs and covers both their issues and preventative vaccination methods.

The effect of metal-containing nanoparticles on the health, performance and production of livestock animals and poultry.

The application of high doses of mineral feed additives in the form of inorganic salts increases the growth performance of animals, but at the same, due to their low bioavailability, can contaminate the environment. Therefore, there is a need to find a replacement of administering high doses of minerals with an equally effective alternative. The application of lower doses of metal-containing nanoparticles with the same effect on animal production could be a potential solution. In the present review, zinc, silver, copper, gold, selenium, and calcium nanoparticles are discussed as potential feed additives for animals. Production of nanoparticles under laboratory conditions using traditional chemical and physical methods as well as green and sustainable methods - biosynthesis has been described. Special attention has been paid to the biological properties of nanoparticles, as well as their effect on animal health and performance. Nano-minerals supplemented to animal feed (poultry, pigs, ruminants, rabbits) acting as growth-promoting, immune-stimulating and antimicrobial agents have been highlighted. Metal nanoparticles are known to exert a positive effect on animal performance, productivity, carcass traits through blood homeostasis maintenance, intestinal microflora, oxidative damage prevention, enhancement of immune responses, etc. Metal-containing nanoparticles can also be a solution for nutrient deficiencies in animals (higher bioavailability and absorption) and can enrich animal products with microelements like meat, milk, or eggs. Metal-containing nanoparticles are proposed to partially replace inorganic salts as feed additives. However, issues related to their potential toxicity and safety to livestock animals, poultry, humans, and the environment should be carefully investigated.

Need of booster vaccine doses to counteract the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants in the context of the Omicron variant and increasing COVID-19 cases: An update.

The emergence of different variants of SARS-CoV-2, including the Omicron (B.1.1.529) variant in November 2021, has resulted in a continuous major health concern at a global scale. Presently, the Omicron variant has spread very rapidly worldwide within a short time period. As the most mutated variant of SARS-CoV-2, Omicron has instilled serious uncertainties on the effectiveness of humoral adaptive immunity generated by COVID-19 vaccination or an active viral infection as well as the protection provided by antibody-based immunotherapies. Amidst such high public health concerns, the need to carry out booster vaccination has been emphasized. Current evidence reveals the importance of incorporating booster vaccination using several vaccine platforms, such as viral vector- and mRNA-based vaccines, as well as other platforms that are under explorative investigations. Further research is being conducted to assess the effectiveness and durability of protection provided by booster COVID-19 vaccination against Omicron and other SARS-CoV-2 variants.

The use of black pepper (Piper guineense) as an ecofriendly antimicrobial agent to fight foodborne microorganisms.

Consumers demand clean-label food products, necessitating the search for new, natural antimicrobials to meet this demand while ensuring food safety. This review aimed at investigating the antimicrobial properties of black pepper (Piper guineense) against foodborne microorganisms. The existence of foodborne illness, food spoilage, food waste, the resulting negative economic impact of these issues, and consumer interests have all pushed the food industry to find alternative, safe, and natural antimicrobials to be used in foods and beverages. Consumers have also influenced the demand for novel antimicrobials due to the perceived association of current synthetic preservatives with diseases and adverse effects on children. They also have a desire for clean-label products. These combined concerns have prompted researchers at investigating plant extracts as potential sources for antimicrobials. Plants possess many antimicrobial properties; therefore, evaluating these plant extracts as a natural source of antimicrobials can lead to a preventative control method in reducing foodborne illness and food spoilage, inclusively meeting consumer needs. In most regions, P. guineense is commonly utilized due to its potent and effective medicinal properties against foodborne microorganisms.

Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (B.1.1.529) variant, salient features, high global health concerns and strategies to counter it amid ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Since the appearance in the late of December 2019, SARS-CoV-2 is rapidly evolving and mutating continuously, giving rise to various variants with variable degrees of infectivity and lethality. The virus that initially appeared in China later mutated several times, wreaking havoc and claiming many lives worldwide amid the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. After Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta variants, the most recently emerged variant of concern (VOC) is the Omicron (B.1.1.529) that has evolved due to the accumulation of high numbers of mutations especially in the spike protein, raising concerns for its ability to evade from pre-existing immunity acquired through vaccination or natural infection as well as overpowering antibodies-based therapies. Several theories are on the surface to explain how the Omicron has gathered such a high number of mutations within less time. Few of them are higher mutation rates within a subgroup of population and then its introduction to a larger population, long term persistence and evolution of the virus in immune-compromised patients, and epizootic infection in animals from humans, where under different immune pressures the virus mutated and then got reintroduced to humans. Multifaceted approach including rapid diagnosis, genome analysis of emerging variants, ramping up of vaccination drives and receiving booster doses, efficacy testing of vaccines and immunotherapies against newly emerged variants, updating the available vaccines, designing of multivalent vaccines able to generate hybrid immunity, up-gradation of medical facilities and strict implementation of adequate prevention and control measures need to be given high priority to handle the on-going SARS-CoV-2 pandemic successfully.

Phytochemical control of poultry coccidiosis: a review.

Avian coccidiosis is a major parasitic disorder in chickens resulting from the intracellular apicomplexan protozoa Eimeria that target the intestinal tract leading to a devastating disease. Eimeria life cycle is complex and consists of intra- and extracellular stages inducing a potent inflammatory response that results in tissue damage associated with oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, diarrheal hemorrhage, poor growth, increased susceptibility to other disease agents, and in severe cases, mortality. Various anticoccidial drugs and vaccines have been used to prevent and control this disorder; however, many drawbacks have been reported. Drug residues concerning the consumers have directed research toward natural, safe, and effective alternative compounds. Phytochemical/herbal medicine is one of these natural alternatives to anticoccidial drugs, which is considered an attractive way to combat coccidiosis in compliance with the "anticoccidial chemical-free" regulations. The anticoccidial properties of several natural herbal products (or their extracts) have been reported. The effect of herbal additives on avian coccidiosis is based on diminishing the oocyst output through inhibition or impairment of the invasion, replication, and development of Eimeria species in the gut tissues of chickens; lowering oocyst counts due to the presence of phenolic compounds in herbal extracts which reacts with cytoplasmic membranes causing coccidial cell death; ameliorating the degree of intestinal lipid peroxidation; facilitating the repair of epithelial injuries; and decreasing the intestinal permeability induced by Eimeria species through the upregulation of epithelial turnover. This current review highlights the anticoccidial activity of several herbal products, and their other beneficial effects.

Necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens: disease characteristics and prevention using organic antibiotic alternatives - a comprehensive review.

In line with the substantial increase in the broiler industry worldwide, Clostridium perfringens-induced necrotic enteritis (NE) became a continuous challenge leading to high economic losses, especially after banning antimicrobial growth promoters in feeds by many countries. The disease is distributed worldwide in either clinical or subclinical form, causing a reduction in body weight or body weight gain and the feed conversion ratio, impairing the European Broiler Index or European Production Efficiency Factor. There are several predisposing factors in the development of NE. Clinical signs varied from inapparent signs in case of subclinical infection (clostridiosis) to obvious enteric signs (morbidity), followed by an increase in mortality level (clostridiosis or clinical infection). Clinical and laboratory diagnoses are based on case history, clinical signs, gross and histopathological lesions, pathogenic agent identification, serological testing, and molecular identification. Drinking water treatment is the most common route for the administration of several antibiotics, such as penicillin, bacitracin, and lincomycin. Strict hygienic management practices in the farm, careful selection of feed ingredients for ration formulation, and use of alternative antibiotic feed additives are all important in maintaining broiler efficiency and help increase the profitability of broiler production. The current review highlights NE caused by C. perfringens and explains the advances in the understanding of C. perfringens virulence factors involved in the pathogenesis of NE with special emphasis on the use of available antibiotic alternatives such as herbal extracts and essential oils as well as vaccines for the control and prevention of NE in broiler chickens.

Examination of the protective efficacy of two avian influenza H5 vaccines against clade 2.3.4.4b H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in commercial broilers.

The highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N8 virus of clade 2.3.4.4 was detected in 2017 in Egypt, which is one of the few countries using vaccination as a control strategy in poultry farms. This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of the commercial recombinant turkey herpes virus-H5 (rHVT-H5) vaccine (clade 2.2), alone or in combination with commercial inactivated reverse genetically engineered H5N1 vaccine (rgH5N1) (clade 2.2), in preventing the genetically distinct HPAI H5N8 virus of clade 2.3.4.4b in commercial broiler chickens. Four experimental groups of chickens were used as follows: G1, non-vaccinated and non-challenged; G2, non-vaccinated and challenged; G3, vaccinated with rHVT-H5; and G4, prime-boost vaccinated with rHVT-H5/rgH5N1. For challenge with the Egyptian HPAI H5N8 (2.3.4.4b) virus, the groups were divided into two subgroups (A and B); chickens in subgroups A were challenged at the age of 28 days, whereas those in subgroups B were challenged at the age of 35 days. Results showed that a protective efficacy (survival rate) of 40%-50% was obtained in the vaccinated subgroups A. By delaying challenge for 1 week (subgroups B), a single rHVT-H5 vaccination provided 80% protection, whereas prime-boost vaccination induced full protection and reduced viral shedding very efficiently (1/10 birds and only detected on the 3rd day post challenge) against HPAI H5N8 virus (2.3.4.4b). Moreover, body weight loss improved from 31.39% and 43.65% in G3A and G4A, respectively, to 16.34% and 7.7% in G3B and G4B, respectively. The HI titers obtained in G3A and G4A on the challenge day (28th d) using H5N8 antigen were 3 and 3.75 log2 (p > 0.05), respectively, whereas those in G3B and G4B on the challenge day (35th d) were 6.25 and 6 log2 (p > 0.05), respectively, which increased post-challenge in all vaccinated subgroups. Therefore, the dual use of vectored rHVT-H5 and inactivated rgH5N1 vaccines in the vaccination schedule in poultry farms is the most efficient tool for preventing the disease (mortality and viral shedding) caused by the genetically distinct virus (clade 2.3.3.4b HPAI H5N8) in combination with strict biosecurity and sanitary measures.

Leucocytozoon caulleryi in Broiler Chicken Flocks: Clinical, Hematologic, Histopathologic, and Molecular Detection.

Despite the vast Egyptian poultry production, scanty information is available concerning the infection of haemprotozoan parasites as pathogens in commercial broilers. In the present study, we provided the first detection of leucocytozoonosis in five broiler chicken flocks in El-Beheira Egyptian governorate. Despite the low mortality rates in the affected flocks (0.3%-1% as a 5-day mortality), severe postmortem (hemorrhagic spots and scars) and histopathologic lesions appeared in different organs including skeletal muscles, liver, kidney, pancreas, abdominal cavity, and bursa of Fabricius. Evaluation of blood smears revealed gametocytes in erythrocytes and leukocytes. Conventional reverse transcriptase-PCR and partial sequence analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase b gene detected Leucocytozoon caulleryi. GenBank accession numbers of the five Egyptian L. caulleryi isolates were obtained. The five L. caulleryi were 99.9% identical to each other and 99.14% similar to the L. caulleryi mitochondrial DNA gene of Asian strains from India, Japan, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand.

Leucocytozoon caulleryi en parvadas de pollos de engorde: detección clínica, hematológica, histopatológica y molecular. A pesar de la vasta producción avícola en Egipto, se dispone de escasa información sobre la infección de parásitos hemoprotozoarios como patógenos en pollos de engorde comerciales. En el presente estudio, se proporciona la primera detección de leucocitozoonosis en cinco parvadas de pollos de engorde en la gobernación egipcia de El-Beheira. A pesar de las bajas tasas de mortalidad en las parvadas afectadas (0.3% -1% como mortalidad de 5 días), aparecieron graves lesiones post mortem (manchas hemorrágicas y cicatrices) e histopatológicas en diferentes órganos, incluidos músculo esquelético, hígado, riñón, páncreas, cavidad abdominal y bolsa de Fabricio. La evaluación de los frotis de sangre reveló gametocitos en eritrocitos y leucocitos. Mediante un método de transcripción reversa con PCR convencional y el análisis parcial de secuencias del gene del citocromo oxidasa b mitocondrial se detectó Leucocytozoon caulleryi. Se obtuvieron los números de acceso de la base de datos GenBank de los cinco aislados de los L. caulleryi egipcios. Los cinco L. caulleryi eran 99.9% idénticos entre sí y 99.14% similares al gene del ADN mitocondrial de L. caulleryi de cepas asiáticas de India, Japón, Malasia, Corea del Sur, Taiwán y Tailandia.