Verminous bronchitis and pneumonia by nasal trematodes in Greater Caribbean manatees from Puerto Rico.

Five adult Greater Caribbean manatees Trichechus manatus manatus were found stranded on various coasts of Puerto Rico; 2 stranded alive and 3 stranded dead. Clinical signs observed in live-stranded manatees included emaciation, weakness, bradypnea, arrhythmia, and nasal mucus discharge. Postmortem examinations revealed serosanguinous, mucohemorrhagic, or suppurative exudate in bronchi associated with luminal adult Pulmonicola cochleotrema (range: 18-182 trematodes), accompanied by pulmonary abscesses in 2 cases. Histologically, we observed eosinophilic bronchopneumonia of varying severity (n = 4) and chronic erosive to eosinophilic tracheobronchitis (n = 4) with squamous metaplasia (n = 3) and intralesional trematodes and eggs. The trematode identity was confirmed and compared through molecular analysis for the amplified 18S rDNA fragment. Comorbidities included enteric chiorchosis (n = 5), gastric heterocheilosis (n = 4), malnutrition (n = 4), trauma related to watercraft collision (n = 3), systemic toxoplasmosis (n = 1), acute bacterial peritonitis (n = 1), and interstitial nephritis (n = 1), suggesting that immunosuppression was a predisposing factor for lower respiratory tract pulmonicolosis. Based on lesion severity, clinical signs, and the presence and absence of other findings to explain death, this condition was considered the primary cause of death in 1 manatee, a contributory cause of death in 3 manatees, and an incidental finding in 1 individual. These clinicopathological descriptions will facilitate the diagnosis and clinical management of pulmonicolosis in T. manatus, a species endangered with extinction.

Case report: Disseminated Cladophialophora bantiana phaeohyphomycosis in a dog with hepatic dysfunction, and concurrent ehrlichiosis.

A 1-year-old mixed breed dog initially presented with marked ascites due to a low-protein transudate resulting from portal hypertension. Laboratory evaluation revealed non-regenerative anemia, lymphopenia, thrombocytopenia, evidence of hepatic insufficiency [hypoalbuminemia, decreased urea, increased post-prandial bile acids, prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)] and Ehrlichia canis infection. Approximately a week later, the dog was declining and was euthanized. On autopsy, multifocal hepatic granulomas and acquired portosystemic shunts (APSS) were seen. Imprint cytology revealed fungal hyphae and pyogranulomatous inflammation in the liver and brain. Disseminated Cladophialophora bantiana phaeohyphomycosis was diagnosed by histologic examination, culture and PCR. Immunosuppression due to ehrlichiosis is suspected to have predisposed this animal to fungal infection. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of C. bantiana in the West Indies.

Expanding on expansus: a new species of Scaphanocephalus from North America and the Caribbean based on molecular and morphological data.

Members of the genus Scaphanocephalus mature in accipitrids, particularly osprey, Pandion haliaetus, with metacercaria causing Black Spot Syndrome in reef fishes. In most of the world, only the type species, Scaphanocephalus expansus (Creplin, 1842) has been reported. Recent molecular studies in the Western Atlantic, Mediterranean and Persian Gulf reveal multiple species of Scaphanocephalus, but have relied on 28S rDNA, mainly from metacercariae, which limits both morphological identification and resolution of closely related species. Here we combine nuclear rDNA with mitochondrial sequences from adult worms collected in osprey across North America and the Caribbean to describe species and elucidate life cycles in Scaphanocephalus. A new species described herein can be distinguished from S. expansus based on overall body shape and size. Phylogenetic analysis of the whole mitochondrial genome of Scaphanocephalus indicates a close relationship with Cryptocotyle. We conclude that at least 3 species of Scaphanocephalus are present in the Americas and 2 others are in the Old World. Specimens in the Americas have similar or identical 28S to those in the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf, but amphi-Atlantic species are unlikely in light of divergence in cytochrome c oxidase I and the lack of amphi-Atlantic avian and fish hosts. Our results provide insight into the geographic distribution and taxonomy of a little-studied trematode recently linked to an emerging pathology in ecologically important reef fishes.

First molecular identification of the trematode Pulmonicola cochleotrema (Platyhelminthes: Opisthotrematidae) in West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus, Sirenia: Trichechidae) from Puerto Rico and Florida.

West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus) harbor a variety of endoparasites, including the nasal trematode Pulmonicola cochleotrema, which infects the respiratory tract, especially the nasal passages. Previous studies have described and identified this digenean using morphological data only. This study presents the first molecular identification of P. cochleotrema in West Indian manatees from Puerto Rico and Florida. Samples of the trematode were collected from seven manatees found stranded dead at both locations. The small subunit ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) was amplified from each sample using universal primers for different regions of the gene, resulting in a consensus sequence of 1871 base pairs. The phylogenetic reconstruction was carried out using DNA sequences of other species of digenean parasites from other hosts, including a trematode of the same taxonomic family from another sirenian species. Specimens collected from both locations show the same molecular identity using SSU rDNA sequence data. The identity of P. cochleotrema was confirmed using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool from the National Center for Biotechnology Information database, yielding a high similarity of 98.8 % with Opisthotrema dujonis and 98.2 % with Lankatrema mannarense located in the same clade in our analysis. The latter two digeneans belong to the Opisthotrematidae as does P. cochleotrema and previous studies reported them infecting the Eustachian tubes, esophagus, and digestive tract in dugongs (Dugong dugon). These findings evidence that the nasal trematode of manatees in Florida and Puerto Rico and the dugong, all inhabiting and feeding in marine environments, will have a marine mollusk as an intermediate host, probably a gastropod. The question remains, which species of nasal trematode are harbored by lotic-dwelling manatees in other parts of their distribution like South America.

A combined diagnostic approach for the investigation of lesions resembling aspergillosis in Caribbean sea fans (Gorgonia spp.).

Aspergillosis of gorgonian sea fans is a Caribbean-wide disease characterized by focal, annular purple pigmentation with central tissue loss. We applied a holistic diagnostic approach including histopathology and a combination of culture and direct molecular identification of fungi to evaluate these lesions with the goal of determining the diversity of associated micro-organisms and pathology. Biopsies were collected from 14 sea fans without gross lesions and 44 sea fans with lesions grossly consistent with aspergillosis in shallow fringing reefs of St. Kitts. Histologically, the tissue loss margin had exposure of the axis and amoebocyte encapsulation with abundant mixed micro-organisms. Polyp loss, gastrodermal necrosis, and coenenchymal amoebocytosis were at the lesion interface (purpled area transitioning to grossly normal tissue) with algae (n = 21), fungus-like hyphae (n = 20), ciliate protists (n = 16), cyanobacteria (n = 15), labyrinthulomycetes (n = 5), or no micro-organisms (n = 8). Slender, septate hyaline hyphae predominated over other morphological categories, but were confined to the axis with little host response other than periaxial melanization. Hyphae were absent in 6 lesioned sea fans and present in 5 control biopsies, questioning their pathogenicity and necessary role in lesion causation. From cultivation, different fungi were isolated and identified by sequencing of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region. In addition, 2 primer pairs were used in a nested format to increase the sensitivity for direct amplification and identification of fungi from lesions, thereby circumventing cultivation. Results suggest mixed and opportunistic infections in sea fans with these lesions, requiring longitudinal or experimental studies to better determine the pathogenesis.

A phylogenetically unresolved apicomplexan (APXSc) causing swirl lesions in the Tehuelche scallop, Aequipecten tehuelchus, from the Southwest Atlantic coast.

The study reports a previously unknown apicomplexan (APXSc) parasite infecting wild scallops Aequipecten tehuelchus (d'Orbigny, 1842) from two separate areas (La Tapera and Punta Conos) of the San José gulf, in Patagonia Argentina. Histology, transmission electron microscope, molecular analyses and in situ hybridization were performed to describe the morphology of APXSc, and confirm its phylogenetic status. The prevalence of APXSc infection was 24% and 72% in scallops from La Tapera and Punta Conos, respectively. Seasonal variation was observed for scallops from La Tapera, recording highest prevalence in summer. A positive relationship between the presence of the APXSc and the size of the scallops was observed. A SSU rDNA consensus sequence of 1758 base pairs was generated which has a 94.8% identity to sequences obtained from a pathogenic apicomplexan parasite infecting Ostrea chilensis in New Zealand, but not closely related to other apicomplexans. The asexual reproduction, i.e. merogony, occurs in the Tehuelche scallop whilst the gamogonic and sporogonic stages were absent, suggesting a yet unknown definitive host. Severe host inflammation response involving fibroblast-like hemocytes surrounding the APXSc in the form of granuloma-like "swirls" is characteristic for this apicomplexan infection. Further studies are needed to reveal the life cycle, and presumable pathogenicity of APXSc.

A case report and statewide surveillance of "weak meat" condition of Alaska weathervane scallops, Patinopecten caurinus, linked to a recently identified pathogenic parasite, Merocystis kathae (Apicomplexa: Aggregatidae).

Weathervane scallop, Patinopecten caurinus, the largest scallop species in the world, is distributed from northern California, U.S.A., to the Bering Sea, and is only commercially harvested in Alaska. The fishery is considered well managed by the State of Alaska (U.S.A) Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) and federal government, with many precautionary measures in place to avoid overharvest. There have been episodic declines in some management areas due to unknown causes. Fishermen also encounter scallops with abnormal adductor muscles, a condition colloquially termed "weak meat", characterized by the retention of muscle when shucked, an obvious darkened discoloration, and/or an abnormal texture making the product unacceptable for marketing. A similar syndrome in Atlantic sea scallops, Placopecten magellanicus, described as "gray meat", occurs in the eastern U.S. and Canada, and proposed causes include senescence, loss of bioenergetics due to chronic infestations, or a synergism of these factors. Recently a severe apicomplexan infection was found to cause a gray meat condition in Iceland scallops, Chlamys islandica, and the collapse of that stock. This parasite was subsequently detected in Atlantic sea scallops with the gray meat condition off the U.S. East Coast. Studies that followed identified the parasite as Merocystis kathae, previously described from the common whelk, Buccinum undatum, more than 100 years ago. In 2015 Bering Sea fishermen reported weak meat in their catch, so samples were submitted to ADF&G for diagnosis. Adductor muscles from all affected scallops had many large foci of an apicomplexan associated with necrosis, fibrosis, and muscular atrophy. Given the reduced quality, marketability, and possibly fitness of affected scallops, we performed a survey to estimate prevalence, intensity, and geographic distribution of this apicomplexan in Alaskan weathervane scallops. We sampled 180 scallops, from individual beds within each of the three major geographically broad scallop areas in Alaska. Overall prevalence was about 82%, ranging from 69 to 100% by district. Overall mean infection intensity, based on the number of parasite foci/section, was about 9 (range of 5-29, by location), with scallops from the Bering Sea and Southwest Kodiak being most severely infected. Molecular analyses confirmed that the Alaskan parasite is M. kathae, i.e., the same apicomplexan that caused the collapse of Icelandic scallops and a suspected cause for gray meat and mass mortality of Atlantic sea scallops in northeast North America.

The presence of sporogonic stages of Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae in Icelandic salmonids detected using in situ hybridisation.

Proliferative kidney disease (PKD) is a widespread temperature-dependent disease in salmonids caused by the myxozoan parasite, Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae (Canning, Curry, Feist, Longshaw et Okamura, 1999) (Tb). Tb has a two-host life cycle, involving fish as an intermediate host and freshwater bryozoans as the definitive host. Although salmonids are acknowledged as hosts for the parasite, it is less clear which fish species are active hosts in the life cycle of Tb. Differences in infection dynamics have been observed between some fish species, which are thought to be related to the existence of two main Tb-strains, the American and European. Iceland, having three species of indigenous salmonids and positioned geographically between Europe and North America, is an ideal location to study the natural development of Tb in wild fish. The main aim of this study was to determine the genetic origin of Tb in Iceland and confirm whether mature spores are produced in Icelandic salmonids. In this study, Icelandic salmonids were infected with the European Tb-strain. In situ hybridisation revealed that intraluminal sporogonic stages, including mature spores, were commonly observed in all three salmonid species. The presence of intraluminal stages has previously been confirmed in brown trout Salmo trutta Linnaeus and Atlantic salmon S. salar Linnaeus in Europe, but they have only been observed in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (Linnaeus) in North America, infected by the local strain. This is, therefore, the first time that sporogonic stages have been observed in Arctic charr in Europe, where fish are infected with the European Tb-strain. Our data strongly suggest that all the three salmonid species inhabiting Icelandic waters serve as active hosts in the life cycle of Tb. However, for full confirmation, transmission trials are needed.

Gross and microscopic pathology of West Indian sea eggs (Tripneustes ventricosus).

In this study, we performed comprehensive pathology examinations on 83 Tripneustes ventricosus from 11 locations on St. Kitts to build baseline data necessary for disease diagnosis in this species. Gross abnormalities were observed in 23/83 (28%) urchins and included spine loss, visceral hyperpigmentation, test discoloration, and test ulceration. Ciliates were the only protists identified in this study via examination of tissue wet mounts and histology, documented in 50/83 (60%) urchins. Microscopic observations associated with visibly abnormal status included muscle necrosis, test and appendage inflammation, appendage (tube feet, spines, and pedicellariae) degeneration, severe coelomocytosis, and generalized hypermelanosis. Enterocyte intranuclear inclusion bodies, microbial aggregates, nerve pigmentation, enteric pigmentation, integument-associated crustaceans, and encysted metazoan parasites were of uncertain pathological significance. The etiology for any lesion was not microscopically apparent, contrasting literature implicating common marine bacteria in urchin diseases. This study highlights the importance of histopathology in urchin disease investigations and facilitates the recognition of disease in T. ventricosus.

Pathology of multifocal purple spots, a nonspecific lesion morphology of Caribbean sea fans Gorgonia spp.

Disease is contributing to the decline of coral reefs globally, but the cause and pathogenesis of most coral diseases are poorly understood. Using Gorgonia ventalina and G. flabellum as a model for coral disease diagnosis, we histologically and microbiologically examined 45 biopsies of lesions resembling Gorgonia multifocal purple spots (MFPS) with the aim of forming a comprehensive case definition based on gross and microscopic morphologic descriptions and associated etiologies. Macroscopically, all lesions were small circular areas of purple pigmentation. Gross morphologies included pigmentation only (4/45, 9%), or pigmentation with branchlet expansion and fusion (19/45, 22%), sessile masses (17/45, 38%), or hard nodules (5/45, 9%). Histological morphologic diagnoses included amoebocyte encapsulation (9/45, 20%), coenenchymal amoebocytosis (6/45, 13%), melanin (17/45, 38%), and gorgonin deposition (13/45, 29%). Sixty-four percent of instances of fungi and 86% of labyrinthulomycetes were localized to grossly normal portions of the biopsy, whereas barnacles were only within lesions, and 87% of instances of algae and 82% of cyanobacteria were within lesioned area of the biopsy. Penicillium (n = 12) was the predominant genus of fungi isolated from biopsies. Barnacles were identified as Conopea sp. using molecular techniques. The pathology and etiology underlying MFPS lesions are diverse, consistent with a highly nonspecific lesion pattern rather than a specific disease. This study demonstrates the importance of microscopic examination of tissues for accurate classification of coral diseases and lesion patterns.

A novel dimorphic microsporidian Ameson iseebi sp. nov. infecting muscle of the Japanese spiny lobster, Panulirus japonicus, in western Japan.

Japanese spiny lobsters (Panulirus japonicus) exhibiting white opaque abdominal muscle were found in Mie and Wakayama prefectures, in mid-Western Japan. Microscopically, two types of microsporidian spores, ovoid and rod-shaped, were observed infecting the muscle. Histologically, both types of spore were detected inside myofibers of the abdomen, appendages, and cardiac muscles and were often both observed in a single myofiber simultaneously. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that ovoid spores have villous projections on the surface, and that ovoid and rod-shaped spores have a polar filament with 12 coils and 6 to 8 coils respectively. Merogonic and sporogonic stages were observed around ovoid spores, but rarely around rod-shaped spores. The small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences obtained from both spore types were identical to each other, indicating that this microsporidian exhibits a clear spore dimorphism. Phylogenetic analysis based on the rDNA sequences indicates that this microsporidian is part of a clade consisting of the genera Ameson and Nadelspora, with the most closely related species being A. herrnkindi found in the Caribbean spiny lobster P. argus. Based on ultrastructural features, molecular phylogenetic data, host type and geographical differences among known species in these genera, the species found in whitened abdominal muscles of the Japanese spiny lobster is described as Ameson iseebi sp. nov.

A novel histozoic myxosporean, Enteromyxum caesio n. sp., infecting the redbelly yellowtail fusilier, Caesio cuning, with the creation of the Enteromyxidae n. fam., to formally accommodate this commercially important genus.

Gastrointestinal myxosporean parasites from the genus Enteromyxum are known to cause severe disease, resulting in high mortalities in numerous species of cultured marine fishes globally. Originally described as Myxidium spp., they were transferred to a new genus, Enteromyxum, to emphasize their novel characteristics. Their retention in the family Myxidiidae at the time was warranted, but more comprehensive phylogenetic analyses have since demonstrated the need for a new family for these parasites. We discovered a novel Enteromyxum in wild fish from Malaysia and herein describe the fourth species in the genus and erect a new family, the Enteromyxidae n. fam., to accommodate them. Enteromyxum caesio n. sp. is described infecting the tissues of the stomach in the redbelly yellowtail fusilier, Caesio cuning, from Malaysia. The new species is distinct from all others in the genus, as the myxospores although morphologically similar, are significantly smaller in size. Furthermore, small subunit ribosomal DNA sequence data reveal that E. caesio is <84% similar to others in the genus, but collectively they form a robust and discrete clade, the Enteromyxidae n. fam., which is placed as a sister taxon to other histozoic marine myxosporeans. In addition, we describe, using transmission electron microscopy, the epicellular stages of Enteromyxum fugu and show a scanning electron micrograph of a mature myxospore of E. caesio detailing the otherwise indistinct sutural line, features of the polar capsules and spore valve ridges. The Enteromyxidae n. fam. is a commercially important group of parasites infecting the gastrointestinal tract of marine fishes and the histozoic species can cause the disease enteromyxosis in intensive finfish aquaculture facilities. Epicellular and sloughed histozoic stages are responsible for fish-to-fish transmission in net pen aquaculture systems but actinospores from an annelid host are thought to be necessary for transmission to fish in the wild.

Scaphanocephalus-associated dermatitis as the basis for black spot disease in Acanthuridae of St. Kitts, West Indies.

Acanthurus spp. of St. Kitts and other Caribbean islands, including ocean surgeonfish A. bahianus, doctorfish A. chirurgus, and blue tang A. coeruleus, frequently show multifocal cutaneous pigmentation. Initial reports from the Leeward Antilles raised suspicion of a parasitic etiology. The aim of this study was to quantify the prevalence of the disease in St. Kitts' Acanthuridae and describe its pathology and etiology. Visual surveys demonstrated consistently high adjusted mean prevalence at 3 shallow reefs in St. Kitts in 2017 (38.9%, 95% CI: 33.8-43.9) and 2018 (51.5%; 95% CI: 46.2-56.9). There were no differences in prevalence across species or reefs, but juvenile fish were less commonly affected than adults. A total of 29 dermatopathy-affected acanthurids were sampled by spearfishing for comprehensive postmortem examination. Digenean metacercariae were dissected from <1 mm cysts within pigmented lesions. Using partial 28S rDNA sequence data they were classified as Family Heterophyidae, members of which are commonly implicated in black spot disease of other fishes. Morphological features of the parasite were most typical of Scaphanocephalus spp. (Creplin, 1842), and 2 genetic profiles were obtained suggesting more than 1 digenean species. Histologically, pigmented lesions had mild chronic perivascular dermatitis and increased melanophores and melanin density, often centered on encysted digenean metacercariae. In 1 affected A. chirurgus, similar metacercariae were histologically identified in skeletal and cardiac muscle. Further research is needed to clarify impact on host fitness, establish the number of heterophyid digenean species that cause black spots on Caribbean fishes and to determine the intermediate and definitive host species.

Multiple Independent Origins of Apicomplexan-Like Parasites.

The apicomplexans are a group of obligate animal pathogens that include Plasmodium (malaria), Toxoplasma (toxoplasmosis), and Cryptosporidium (cryptosporidiosis) [1]. They are an extremely diverse and specious group but are nevertheless united by a distinctive suite of cytoskeletal and secretory structures related to infection, called the apical complex, which is used to recognize and gain entry into animal host cells. The apicomplexans are also known to have evolved from free-living photosynthetic ancestors and retain a relict plastid (the apicoplast), which is non-photosynthetic but houses a number of other essential metabolic pathways [2]. Their closest relatives include a mix of both photosynthetic algae (chromerids) and non-photosynthetic microbial predators (colpodellids) [3]. Genomic analyses of these free-living relatives have revealed a great deal about how the alga-parasite transition may have taken place, as well as origins of parasitism more generally [4]. Here, we show that, despite the surprisingly complex origin of apicomplexans from algae, this transition actually occurred at least three times independently. Using single-cell genomics and transcriptomics from diverse uncultivated parasites, we find that two genera previously classified within the Apicomplexa, Piridium and Platyproteum, form separately branching lineages in phylogenomic analyses. Both retain cryptic plastids with genomic and metabolic features convergent with apicomplexans. These findings suggest a predilection in this lineage for both the convergent loss of photosynthesis and transition to parasitism, resulting in multiple lineages of superficially similar animal parasites.

Extraintestinal Acanthocephalan Oncicola venezuelensis (Oligacanthorhynchidae) in Small Indian Mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) and African Green Monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus).

We identified multiple extraintestinal cystacanths during routine postmortem examination of 3 small Indian mongooses and 2 African green monkeys from the Caribbean island of St. Kitts. In mongooses, cystacanths were encysted or free in the subcutaneous tissue, skeletal muscle, or peritoneal or pericardial cavities, whereas in the monkeys, they were in the cavity and parietal layer of the, tunica vaginalis, skeletal muscle, and peritoneal cavity. Morphological, histological, and molecular characterization identified these cystacanths as Oncicola venezuelensis (Acanthocephala: Oligacanthorhynchidae). There was minimal to mild lymphoplasmacytic inflammation associated with the parasite in the mongooses and moderate inflammation, mineralization, hemorrhage, and fibrosis in the connective tissue between the testis and epididymis in 1 monkey. We identified a mature male O. venezuelensis attached in the aboral jejunum of a feral cat, confirming it as the definitive host. Termites serve as intermediate hosts and lizards as paratenic hosts. This report emphasizes the role of the small Indian mongoose and African green monkey as paratenic hosts for O. venezuelensis.

Studies of Myxidium giardi Cépède, 1906 infections in Icelandic eels identifies a genetically diverse clade of myxosporeans that represents the Paramyxidium n. g. (Myxosporea: Myxidiidae).

BACKGROUND: The myxosporean Myxidium giardi Cépède, 1906 was described infecting the kidney of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla (L.), having spindle-shaped myxospores and terminal sub-spherical polar capsules. Since then, numerous anguillid eels globally have been documented to have similar Myxidium infections. Many of these have been identified using the morphological features of myxospores or by the location of infection in the host, and some have been subsequently synonymised with M. giardi. Therefore, it is not clear whether M. giardi is a widely distributed parasite, infecting numerous species of eels, in multiple organs, or whether some infections represent other, morphologically similar but different species of myxosporeans. The aim of the present study was to assess the status of M. giardi infections in Icelandic eels, and related fish hosts in Malaysia and to use spore morphology and molecular techniques to evaluate the diversity of myxosporeans present. RESULTS: The morphologies of the myxospores from Icelandic eels were very similar but the overall dimensions were significantly different from the various tissue locations. Myxospores from the kidney of the Malaysian tarpon, Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet), were noticeably smaller. However, the SSU rDNA sequences from the different tissues locations in eels, were all very distinct, with percentage similarities ranging from 92.93% to as low as 89.8%, with the sequence from Malaysia being even more dissimilar. Molecular phylogenies consistently placed these sequences together in a clade that we refer to as the Paramyxidium clade that is strongly associated with the Myxidium clade (sensu stricto). We erect the genus Paramyxidium n. g. (Myxidiidae) to accommodate these histozoic taxa, and transfer Myxidium giardi as Paramyxidium giardi Cépède, 1906 n. comb. as the type-species. CONCLUSIONS: There is not a single species of Myxidium (M. giardi) causing systemic infections in eels in Iceland. There are three species, confirmed with a robust phylogeny, one of which represents Paramyxidium giardi n. comb. Additional species probably exist that infect different tissues in the eel and the site of infection in the host fish is an important diagnostic feature for this group (Paramyxidium n. g. clade). Myxospore morphology is generally conserved in the Paramyxidium clade, although actual spore dimensions can vary between some species. Paramyxidium spp. are currently only known to infect fishes from the Elopomorpha.

Digestive gland inclusion bodies in queen conch (Lobatus gigas) are non-parasitic.

Unusual inclusion bodies occur within the epithelial cells of the digestive gland of queen conch, Lobatus gigas, and have previously been described as apicomplexan parasites. The aim of this study was to investigate the parasitic features of these inclusion bodies in queen conch. L. gigas from St. Kitts (Caribbean Sea) consistently (100% of n = 61) showed large numbers of ovoid to tri-bulbous dark brown inclusion bodies (15 × 30 µm) within vacuolar cells. Histochemical stains demonstrated iron, melanin, and glycoprotein and/or mucopolysaccharide within the inclusion bodies. Microscopic features indicative of a host response to injury were lacking in every case, as were consistent morphological forms to indicate distinct parasitic stages. Transmission electron microscopy failed to reveal cellular organelles of parasitic organisms and DNA extractions of purified inclusion bodies did not yield sufficient concentrations for successful PCR amplification. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis revealed a number of elements, particularly iron, within the inclusion bodies. We conclude that the inclusion bodies are not an infectious agent, and hypothesize that they represent a storage form for iron, and potentially other elements, within a protein matrix. Similar structures have been described in the digestive glands of other invertebrates, including prosobranchs.

Pathology and reproductive health of queen conch (Lobatus gigas) in St. Kitts.

Queen conch, Lobatus gigas, are one of the largest commercial fisheries in the Caribbean and are severely depleted due to overharvesting. Dwindling and fragmented populations are at high risk to stochastic events such as disease epidemics; however, there is a paucity of literature regarding queen conch disease. A histopathological survey was conducted to assess the disease status of St. Kitts' queen conch populations, and contribute to the little information known about L. gigas pathology. Using a standard dissection and sampling protocol, pathology status was assessed in 61 L. gigas sampled opportunistically from fishermen in St. Kitts from October 2015 to November 2016. Pathology was observed in 13.1% (8/61) of the study population, mostly comprising internal parasitism (n = 5), especially encysted metazoan parasites (likely digenean metacercaria), observed in the gill, mantle, digestive gland and large intestine. Parasitism appeared incidental, having little impact on the host's health and minimal host response to the infection. Additionally, aspects of L. gigas reproductive health were analyzed: reproductive season in St. Kitts was confirmed from May to September; lip thickness is suggested as a better regulation measure for protecting juvenile populations compared to shell length; and variation in gonad color is found to be an unreliable predictor of reproductive activity. We conclude that disease appears to be uncommon in fisherman-caught L. gigas from St. Kitts. Pathologies observed elsewhere, including imposex and apicomplexan infection of the digestive gland, could not be substantiated in the study population. The cryptic nature of sick gastropods, as well as high predation rate and selection pressure for diseased queen conch may yield underrepresentation of pathology in such surveys. Future disease surveys could benefit from targeting stunted individuals, those showing unusual behavior, or those grown in an aquaculture environment.

X-Cells Are Globally Distributed, Genetically Divergent Fish Parasites Related to Perkinsids and Dinoflagellates.

"X-cells" have long been associated with tumor-like formations (xenomas) in marine fish, including many of commercial interest. The name was first used to refer to the large polygonal cells that were found in epidermal xenomas from flatfish from the Pacific Northwest [1]. Similar looking cells from pseudobranchial xenomas had previously been reported from cod in the Atlantic [2] and Pacific Oceans [3]. X-cell pathologies have been reported from five teleost orders: Pleuronectiformes (flatfish), Perciformes (perch-like fish), Gadiformes (cods), Siluriformes (catfish), and Salmoniformes (salmonids). Various explanations have been elicited for their etiology, including being adenomas or adenocarcinomas [4, 5], virally transformed fish cells [6-8], or products of coastal pollution [9, 10]. It was hypothesized that X-cells were protozoan parasites [1, 11-13], and although recent molecular analyses have confirmed this, they have failed to place them in any phylum [14-18], demonstrating weak phylogenetic associations with the haplosporidians [16] or the alveolates [15]. Here, we sequenced rRNA genes from European and Japanese fish that are known to develop X-cell xenomas. We also generated a metagenomic sequence library from X-cell xenomas of blue whiting and Atlantic cod and assembled 63 X-cell protein-coding genes for a eukaryote-wide phylogenomic analysis. We show that X-cells group in two highly divergent clades, robustly sister to the bivalve parasite Perkinsus. We formally describe these as Gadixcellia and Xcellia and provide a phylogenetic context to catalyze future research. We also screened Atlantic cod populations for xenomas and residual pathologies and show that X-cell infections are more prevalent and widespread than previously known.