Combining human and snail indicators for an integrative risk assessment of metal(loid)-contaminated soils.

With the new soil uses such as land restoration and to protect wilderness, the human health risk assessment (HHRA) and environmental risk assessment (ERA) should be combined. Based on the relationships demonstrated between an indicator of soil quality, the land snail, and human exposure, the aim of this study is to examine the snail and human risk indicators for twenty-nine soils contaminated by metal(loid)s. HHRA was evaluated by both hazard quotient and carcinogenic risk. When the human health indicators were ranked as uncertain, they were weighted by bioaccessibility to refine the risk assessment. The ERA was performed with risk coefficient after ex situ snail exposure. The results showed strong and novel relationships between human health and environmental risk indicators that had never been found before. For 62% of the soils, both indicators revealed either a confirmed risk or an uncertain level of risk. Overall pollutants present greater risk for human than for environment, with 55 vs 28% of the studied soils classified in the proven risk, respectively. An original integrative risk assessment of polluted soils has been proposed, that shall help setting up relevant strategies to manage contaminated soils considering not only human but also environmental indicators of risk.

Ex situ environmental risk assessment of polluted soils using threshold guide values for the land snail Cantareus aspersus.

Environmental risk assessment of contaminated soils should ideally be carried out with complementary approaches (chemical and biological) conducted in situ and ex situ. While biological methods based on the assessment of effect and bioaccumulation in bioindicators exist for soil fauna organisms, such as land snails, the methodology is currently limited in the field to 14 metallic elements (MEs). To provide new relevant tools to the stakeholders of polluted fields, the aim of this work is to determine ex situ threshold guide values (ex situ TGVs), for 15 MEs, 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 7 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). These ex situ TGVs are the usual concentration of contaminants found in the viscera of the bioindicator Cantareus aspersus after 28 days of exposure to uncontaminated soils. The second objective was to assess and validate the relevance of these ex situ TGVs for the interpretation of contamination levels in various European contaminated soils based on global index calculations: i) The sum of the excess of transfers (SETs) and ii) the weighted SETs based on the general toxicity points of each contaminant used to evaluate the risk of transferred MEs, PAHs and PCBs (ERITMEs, ERITPAHs and ERITPCBs, respectively). In addition, the influence of soil physico-chemical properties on accumulation was modelled to better understand their roles in bioavailability. The presented ex situ TGV and the associated indicators (the global sum of the excess of transfers and global ecotoxicological risk) provide a basis by which stakeholders can prioritize the management of polluted soils depending on the risk they may represent. The determination of ex situ TGVs for organic and inorganic compounds provides new tools to characterize excess contaminant transfers, and it will also allow the use of snails for ERAs, notably for common pollutants, such as PAHs and PCBs for which guide values are not available.

Bioaccessibility of metal(loid)s in soils to humans and their bioavailability to snails: A way to associate human health and ecotoxicological risk assessment?

Human health risk assessment (HHRA) and ecotoxicological risk assessment (ERA) of contaminated soils are frequently performed separately and based on total soil concentrations without considering the concepts of mobility, bioaccessibility and bioavailability. However, some chemical and biological assays rarely used in combination can be applied to more accurately assess the exposure of organisms to metal(loid)s and thus to better estimate the links between soil contamination and effects. For humans, the unified bioaccessibility method (UBM) assesses oral bioaccessibility, while for soil fauna such as land snails, the bioaccumulation test reflects the bioavailability of contaminants. The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between oral bioaccessibility and the bioavailability of arsenic, cadmium and lead in twenty-nine contaminated soils. The results show a modulation of bioaccumulation and bioaccessibility of metal(loid)s by soil physicochemical parameters (organic matter especially). For the three metal(loid)s studied, strong relationships were modelled between the UBM and snail tests (0.77 < r²adj.<0.95), depending on the parameters of the linear regressions (contaminant and phases of the UBM test). The original models proposed demonstrate the feasibility of linking bioaccessibility to humans and bioavailability to snails and the relevance of their association for an integrative risk assessment of contaminated soils.

Soil parameters are key factors to predict metal bioavailability to snails based on chemical extractant data.

Although soil characteristics modulate metal mobility and bioavailability to organisms, they are often ignored in the risk assessment of metal transfer. This paper aims to determine the ability of chemical methods to assess and predict cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) environmental bioavailability to the land snail Cantareus aspersus. Snails were exposed in the laboratory for 28 days to 17 soils from around a former smelter. The soils were selected for their range of pH, organic matter, clay content, and Cd, Pb and Zn concentrations. The influence of soil properties on environmental availability (estimated using HF-HClO(4), EDTA, CaCl(2), NH(4)NO(3), NaNO(3), free ion activity and total dissolved metal concentration in soil solution) and on environmental bioavailability (modelled using accumulation kinetics) was identified. Among the seven chemical methods, only the EDTA and the total soil concentration can be used to assess Cd and Pb environmental bioavailability to snails (r²(adj)=0.67 and 0.77, respectively). For Zn, none of the chemical methods were suitable. Taking into account the influence of the soil characteristics (pH and CEC) allows a better prediction of Cd and Pb environmental bioavailability (r²(adj)=0.82 and 0.83, respectively). Even though alone none of the chemical methods tested could assess Zn environmental bioavailability to snails, the addition of pH, iron and aluminium oxides allowed the variation of assimilation fluxes to be predicted. A conceptual and practical method to use soil characteristics for risk assessment is proposed based on these results. We conclude that as yet there is no universal chemical method to predict metal environmental bioavailability to snails, and that the soil factors having the greatest impact depend on the metal considered.

Use of chemical methods to assess Cd and Pb bioavailability to the snail Cantareus aspersus: a first attempt taking into account soil characteristics.

Bioavailability is a key parameter in conditioning contaminant transfer to biota. However, in risk assessment of terrestrial contamination, insufficient attention is being paid to the influence of soil type on trace metal bioavailability. This paper addresses the influence of soil properties on the chemical availability of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) (CaCl(2) extraction and ionic activity) and bioavailability (accumulation kinetics) to the land snail Cantareus aspersus. Snails were exposed to nine contaminated soils differing by a single characteristic (pH or organic matter content or clay content) for 28 days. Toxicokinetic models were applied to determine metal uptake and excretion rates in snails and multivariate regression was used to relate uptake parameters to soil properties. The results showed that alkalinisation of soil and an increase of the organic matter content decreased Pb and Cd bioavailability to snails whereas kaolin clay had no significant influence. The CaCl(2)-extractable concentrations tended to overestimate the effects of pH when used to explain metal uptake rate. We conclude that factors other than those controlling the extractable fraction affect metal bioavailability to snails, confirming the requirement of biota measurements in risk assessment procedures.

Comparison of transfer and effects of Cd on rats exposed in a short experimental snail-rat food chain or to CdCl2 dosed food.

Transfer and toxic effects of two cadmium (Cd) forms, inorganic (CdCl2 dosed rat food) or organic (contaminated snail-based rat food) were studied in Wistar rat. Cd concentrations in rat food were 0 and 2.5 microg Cd g(-1) for both inorganic and organic forms and a high concentration of 100 microg Cd g(-1) was also tested for the inorganic form. Rats were exposed for four weeks to contaminated food. Both forms of Cd were bioavailable to rats, with a percentage of transfer from food to rats of around 1% for all contaminated groups. Cd concentrations in rat tissues increased with increasing Cd concentrations in the food. Rats fed with organic form of Cd accumulated significantly more Cd in the main organ for Cd toxicity, the kidney, than those eating the inorganic form. Survival was not affected for any rat group but a decrease in growth and food consumption was observed for the inorganic form. As a defence system against Cd toxicity, rats increased their metallothionein (MT) synthesis at the highest Cd concentration in the target organs (kidney, liver and small intestine) and even did the same at low Cd concentrations (2.5 microg Cd g(-1)) in the kidney. At this low Cd concentration, MT induction was lower in the small intestine of rats ingesting organic Cd than those ingesting inorganic Cd. Bioavailability of organic and inorganic forms of Cd was similar, but subsequent Cd distribution within organs was different. This quantification of the trophic transfer of both inorganic and organic forms of a toxicant is a basis for a better assessment of the fate and effects of chemicals in food webs.