Readiness and Response: The Practitioner's Role.

The threat of foreign animal diseases is steadily increasing. Veterinary practitioners play a vital role in a community's preparedness for, response to, and recovery from a foreign animal disease outbreak. This article examines the steps a practitioner needs to take to become ready to have a role in disaster readiness and response. Resources exist to provide the practitioner with tools needed to transition their normal daily activities to a larger integrated response. The knowledge and skills used by practitioners in disaster management lead to a more effective and efficient response to a foreign animal disease.

Assessing Veterinary Practice and Practitioner Preparedness for Natural and Man-Made Disasters, Including COVID-19.

Natural and man-made disasters lead to hundreds of millions of dollars in economic losses annually worldwide. Veterinarians are most qualified to support local, state, national, and international efforts in emergency management. However, they may lack the knowledge and advanced training to most effectively plan, prepare, and respond. Currently, only two colleges offer training embedded in their core veterinary curriculum. In this study, a survey was conducted to gain an understanding of veterinary practice and practitioner preparedness for natural and man-made disasters in the United States and Canada, with questions assessing pandemic preparedness. The participants graduated from 28 American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)-accredited veterinary colleges globally and 2 non-accredited veterinary colleges, represent a diverse set of veterinary practice types, and have an average of 26 years' practice experience. Overall, 63.5% of veterinary respondents had experienced a natural disaster, while only 9.6% had experienced a man-made disaster. Approximately 66% reported having a practice disaster preparedness plan, while less than 20% of those actively maintained and updated the plan. Furthermore, less than 50% of the practices and practitioners were ready to face the challenges of a global pandemic. Approximately 68% reported using some form of communication to educate clients about family and pet disaster readiness. Many felt that some advanced disaster readiness training would have been helpful in their veterinary curriculum. Our findings indicate that additional training in the veterinary curriculum, as well as continuing education, would help veterinarians and practices be better prepared for natural and man-made disasters.

Assessing Disaster Preparedness and Educational Needs of Private Veterinary Practitioners in Mississippi.

The veterinary medical education system faces increasing challenges in educating students in the most current technologies while responding to changing community needs and expectations. Communities expect veterinarians to be involved in disaster management at some level. The purpose of this study was to describe the level of disaster preparedness and educational needs of veterinary practitioners in Mississippi. A survey was mailed to 706 practitioners to assess disaster plans, disaster training, and familiarity with disaster-related organizations. Forty-three percent of veterinarians had a clinic disaster plan. Veterinary practitioners who had experienced a disaster were more likely to have a personal plan (odds ratio [OR] = 4.55, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.47-8.37) and a clinic plan (OR = 4.11, 95% CI = 2.28-7.44) than those who had not. Veterinarians residing in Mississippi Gulf Coast counties were more likely to have a personal plan (OR = 3.62, 95% CI = 1.54-8.72) and a clinic plan (OR = 3.09, 95% CI = 1.35-7.21) than were those residing in other areas. Only 17% of veterinarians had assistance agreements with other practices, and few veterinarians indicated having disaster education materials available for their clients. Twenty percent of respondents indicated having obtained formal disaster training, and more than two-thirds of respondents were interested in receiving disaster training, mostly in the form of online delivery. Results suggest that private veterinary practitioners have the desire and need to obtain disaster education. Providing opportunities for both veterinarians and veterinary students to obtain education in disaster management will result in better overall community disaster preparedness.

Safety of Benazepril in 400 Azotemic and 110 Non-Azotemic Client-Owned Cats (2001-2012).

This retrospective study examined cats after initiation of benazepril therapy to determine the frequency of systemic hypotension or elevations in serum creatinine and/or potassium. Medical records review identified azotemic and non-azotemic cats prescribed benazepril. Blood pressure was recorded at the first available time after initiation of therapy. No cats experienced documented systolic systemic hypotension (<90 mmHg). Serum creatinine, and potassium when available, were recorded at baseline and in time windows after initiation of treatment: 1-30 days and 31-60 days. Blood chemistry results were screened for hyperkalemia (≥6.0 mEq/L). During the first 2 mo after starting benazepril therapy, there was a low incidence (3.7%) and clinically insignificant magnitude of hyperkalemia. Serum creatinine increases of greater than 30% from baseline were noted. This change was found in 11.0% of cats during the first 30 days of therapy and in 13.7% of cats from days 31-60 after initiation of therapy. The long-term survival of the cats that had >30% increases in creatinine from baseline was not statistically different from the survival of those that did not experience these increases, which suggests this finding may not be a reason to discontinue therapy. Benazepril appeared safe in a heterogeneous population of cats.

Factors influencing diagnostic sample submission by food animal veterinarians in Mississippi.

A focus group was organised to gather information and opinions from food animal veterinarians in Mississippi regarding sample submission to diagnostic laboratories. The research found that a range of factors influence the veterinarian's decision regarding whether samples will be submitted to a diagnostic laboratory, with the cost of diagnostics as the key influence. The veterinarians believed that the relationship they had with diagnostic laboratories was important in the protection of public health, but they thought that their role in disease surveillance was under-utilised. More attention needs to be directed towards strengthening veterinary surveillance at ground level to ensure that emergent diseases are detected effectively by a partnership approach between veterinary practitioners in the field and diagnosticians in diagnostic laboratories. This partnership is a vital component of the 'One Health' concept for the protection of both animal and human health. This study demonstrates that qualitative social science methodologies, such as focus groups, can usefully be applied to topics of relevance to veterinary public health.

Genetic and phenotypic characterization of the bla(CMY) gene from Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica isolated from food-producing animals, humans, the environment, and retail meat.

The bla(CMY-2) family of the ampC beta-lactamase genes confer broad-spectrum resistance to beta-lactam antimicrobials, including ceftriaxone and ceftiofur, as well as to beta-lactamase inhibitors, such as clavulanic acid. Organisms with the bla(CMY-2) phenotype have been recovered from the environment and from retail meat products, posing a potential public health risk. The objectives of this study were to sequence the bla(CMY-2) gene from Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica from multiple sources that had a reduced susceptibility to ceftriaxone and to determine the effect of observed mutations in the bla(CMY-2) gene on the antimicrobial resistance phenotype (spectrum and minimum inhibitory concentration/susceptibility patterns) of the isolates. The bla(CMY-2) genes from 52 bacterial isolates were sequenced for this study. Sixty-two percent (32/52) were E. coli and 38% (20/52) were S. enterica. Of the 32 E. coli isolates, 30 were found to carry a beta-lactamase gene that was 100% homologous to bla(CMY-2). One of the E. coli isolates was found to contain a gene that was 90% homologous to bla(CMY-2). This isolate also had lower minimum inhibitory concentrations to tetracyclines, streptomycin, and the sulfonamide antimicrobials than are commonly expected for isolates containing the bla(CMY-2). Of the 20 genes obtained from Salmonella isolates, 8 (40%) were found to be homologous to bla(CMY-2), with no altered susceptibility phenotypes observed.

Prevalence of and risk factors associated with shedding of Cryptosporidium felis in domestic cats of Mississippi and Alabama.

The prevalence of and risk factors associated with the shedding of cryptosporidial oocysts were determined for domestic cats in northeastern Mississippi and northwestern Alabama. Cryptosporidial oocysts were found in a single fecal samples from 30 of 250 cats using a centrifugal concentration technique followed by an immunofluorescent assay. The odds of a cat shedding oocysts were increased when another cat shedding oocysts was present in the household. Logistic regression analysis showed only concurrent shedding of Giardia cysts to be significantly associated with the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in the feces. Oocysts from 12 cats were successfully genotyped, based on sequencing of a fragment of the 18S rRNA gene, all isolates were Cryptosporidium felis.

Genotypic analysis of Giardia duodenalis in domestic cats.

BACKGROUND: Giardia duodenalis is an intestinal flagellated protozoan that affects many mammalian species often causing severe diarrheal disease. Several different genotypes have been identified (Assemblages A-G). Most isolates recovered from domestic cats have been assigned to either Assemblage A, the zoonotic form of the parasite, or Assemblage F, identified thus far only in cats. Genotypic variation within G. duodenalis may influence clinical presentation and course of disease. Therefore, host-adapted genotypes may not be responsible for diarrheal disease (eg, Assemblage F in cats). HYPOTHESIS: Multiple Giardia genotypes will be present in domestic cats, including Assemblage F, which will not be correlated with clinical signs. ANIMALS: 250 domestic cats from eastern Mississippi and northwestern Alabama. METHODS: Prevalence survey. Fecal samples evaluated for cysts using a centrifugation concentration technique and a commercially available direct immunoflourescent antibody kit. Giardia isolates were characterized by PCR amplification and sequencing of the glutamate dehydrogenase gene. RESULTS: Both Assemblage A-I (6/17) and Assemblage F (11/17) were identified. Although Assemblage was significantly associated with age and housing, no association was detected between Assemblage and a variety of other factors including the presence of gastrointestinal signs (acute vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: The presence of diarrhea in domestic cats with Giardia cannot be used as a predictor of the presence of zoonotic genotypes in animals within the study area. Although Assemblage A was associated with age and housing, veterinarians should consider any isolation of Giardia from domestic cats as potentially zoonotic.

Prevalence and factors associated with fecal shedding of Giardia spp. in domestic cats.

The prevalence of cats shedding Giardia cysts (13.6%) in the present study was found to be higher than previously reported (1% to 11%) and may reflect a higher sensitivity for the diagnostic test used. The presence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts, coccidial oocysts, and a clinical history of chronic (>2 weeks) gastrointestinal signs were significantly associated with the presence of Giardia spp. cysts in the feces. There were no associations between the presence of Giardia spp. cysts and type of housing, acute gastrointestinal signs, vomiting, gender, source of cat (i.e., animal shelter versus private breeder), or gastrointestinal parasites other than Cryptosporidium spp. and intestinal coccidial agents.

Prevalence of fecal shedding of Salmonella spp in dairy herds.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate prevalence of Salmonella spp in Ohio dairy farms and to identify potential risk factors for fecal shedding of salmonellae. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SAMPLE POPULATION: 105 Ohio dairy farms. PROCEDURE: Individual fecal samples from all mature cows in study herds were tested for Salmonella spp by use of standard bacteriologic culture procedures. Herds were identified as infected if at least 1 cow was shedding Salmonella spp. Information regarding herd characteristics, management practices, and health history were collected. Potential risk factors for herd-level Salmonella infection were identified. RESULTS: In 31% of the study herds (95% confidence interval, 22 to 40%), at least 1 cow was shedding Salmonella spp. Six percent of 7,776 fecal samples contained Salmonella organisms; prevalence within infected herds ranged from < 1 to 97%. Herd size, use of free stalls for lactating and nonlactating cows, and use of straw bedding in nonlactating cows were significantly associated with fecal shedding of Salmonella spp, as determined by use of univariate analysis. By use of multivariate analysis, large herds were more likely to be infected than smaller herds; however, no other factors were associated with Salmonella infection after adjustment for herd size. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Subclinical shedding of Salmonella spp is common in Ohio dairy herds, although we could not identify specific interventions that may influence the prevalence of Salmonella spp on dairy farms. It appears that large herd size and intensive management may provide an environment conducive to Salmonella shedding and chronic dairy herd infection.

Persistent fecal Salmonella shedding in five dairy herds.

OBJECTIVE: To monitor patterns of Salmonella fecal shedding in naturally infected dairy herds, determine the association between fecal shedding and individual animal production measures, and evaluate potential risk factors for shedding of Salmonella organisms among cattle in dairy herds. DESIGN: Longitudinal study. SAMPLE POPULATION: 5 Ohio dairy herds. PROCEDURE: For 3 herds, fecal samples were collected from all mature cows and unweaned calves 7 times during an 18-month period. For the remaining 2 herds, fecal samples were collected from 50 lactating cows 6 times during a 12-month period. Individual animal production records for 3 herds were used to examine associations between individual fecal Salmonella shedding status and 305-day mature-equivalent milk production, somatic cell count, milk fat content, and milk protein content. Multivariable logistic regression was used to test for associations between fecal shedding status and breed, lactation status, lactation number, and duration of lactation. RESULTS: None of the adult animals had clinical signs of salmonellosis, but prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding at individual collection times ranged from 0 to 99% for cows and from 0 to 67% for unweaned calves. Mature cows were more likely to be shedding Salmonella organisms than were unweaned calves. Within herds, lactation status and duration of lactation for individual animals were associated with Salmonella shedding status. Salmonella fecal shedding status was not associated with individual cow production measures. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that subclinical fecal Salmonella shedding can persist in dairy herds for up to 18 months with no measurable effects on health or production of individual cows.