The developmental mechanics of divergent buckling patterns in the chick gut.

Tissue buckling is an increasingly appreciated mode of morphogenesis in the embryo, but it is often unclear how geometric and material parameters are molecularly determined in native developmental contexts to generate diverse functional patterns. Here, we study the link between differential mechanical properties and the morphogenesis of distinct anteroposterior compartments in the intestinal tract-the esophagus, small intestine, and large intestine. These regions originate from a simple, common tube but adopt unique forms. Using measured data from the developing chick gut coupled with a minimal theory and simulations of differential growth, we investigate divergent lumen morphologies along the entire early gut and demonstrate that spatiotemporal geometries, moduli, and growth rates control the segment-specific patterns of mucosal buckling. Primary buckling into wrinkles, folds, and creases along the gut, as well as secondary buckling phenomena, including period-doubling in the foregut and multiscale creasing-wrinkling in the hindgut, are captured and well explained by mechanical models. This study advances our existing knowledge of how identity leads to form in these regions, laying the foundation for future work uncovering the relationship between molecules and mechanics in gut morphological regionalization.

Patterning and folding of intestinal villi by active mesenchymal dewetting.

Tissue folds are structural motifs critical to organ function. In the intestine, bending of a flat epithelium into a periodic pattern of folds gives rise to villi, finger-like protrusions that enable nutrient absorption. However, the molecular and mechanical processes driving villus morphogenesis remain unclear. Here, we identify an active mechanical mechanism that simultaneously patterns and folds the intestinal epithelium to initiate villus formation. At the cellular level, we find that PDGFRA+ subepithelial mesenchymal cells generate myosin II-dependent forces sufficient to produce patterned curvature in neighboring tissue interfaces. This symmetry-breaking process requires altered cell and extracellular matrix interactions that are enabled by matrix metalloproteinase-mediated tissue fluidization. Computational models, together with in vitro and in vivo experiments, revealed that these cellular features manifest at the tissue level as differences in interfacial tensions that promote mesenchymal aggregation and interface bending through a process analogous to the active dewetting of a thin liquid film.

Patterning and folding of intestinal villi by active mesenchymal dewetting.

Tissue folding generates structural motifs critical to organ function. In the intestine, bending of a flat epithelium into a periodic pattern of folds gives rise to villi, the numerous finger-like protrusions that are essential for nutrient absorption. However, the molecular and mechanical mechanisms driving the initiation and morphogenesis of villi remain a matter of debate. Here, we identify an active mechanical mechanism that simultaneously patterns and folds intestinal villi. We find that PDGFRA+ subepithelial mesenchymal cells generate myosin II-dependent forces sufficient to produce patterned curvature in neighboring tissue interfaces. At the cell-level, this occurs through a process dependent upon matrix metalloproteinase-mediated tissue fluidization and altered cell-ECM adhesion. By combining computational models with in vivo experiments, we reveal these cellular features manifest at the tissue-level as differences in interfacial tensions that promote mesenchymal aggregation and interface bending through a process analogous to the active de-wetting of a thin liquid film.

Setting boundaries for tissue patterning.

Engineers point the way toward more complex and homogeneous intestinal organoids.

Organoid models for mammary gland dynamics and breast cancer.

The mammary gland is a highly dynamic tissue that undergoes repeated cycles of growth and involution during pregnancy and menstruation. It is also the site from which breast cancers emerge. Organoids provide an in vitro model that preserves several of the cellular, structural, and microenvironmental features that dictate mammary gland function in vivo and have greatly advanced our understanding of glandular biology. Their tractability for genetic manipulation, live imaging, and high throughput screening have facilitated investigation into the mechanisms of glandular morphogenesis, structural maintenance, tumor progression, and invasion. Opportunities remain to enhance cellular and structural complexity of mammary organoid models, including incorporating additional cell types and hormone signaling.

Genetic and Mechanical Regulation of Intestinal Smooth Muscle Development.

The gastrointestinal tract is enveloped by concentric and orthogonally aligned layers of smooth muscle; however, an understanding of the mechanisms by which these muscles become patterned and aligned in the embryo has been lacking. We find that Hedgehog acts through Bmp to delineate the position of the circumferentially oriented inner muscle layer, whereas localized Bmp inhibition is critical for allowing formation of the later-forming, longitudinally oriented outer layer. Because the layers form at different developmental stages, the muscle cells are exposed to unique mechanical stimuli that direct their alignments. Differential growth within the early gut tube generates residual strains that orient the first layer circumferentially, and when formed, the spontaneous contractions of this layer align the second layer longitudinally. Our data link morphogen-based patterning to mechanically controlled smooth muscle cell alignment and provide a mechanistic context for potentially understanding smooth muscle organization in a wide variety of tubular organs.

Chick midgut morphogenesis.

The gastrointestinal tract is an essential system of organs required for nutrient absorption. As a simple tube early in development, the primitive gut is patterned along its anterior-posterior axis into discrete compartments with unique morphologies relevant to their functions in the digestive process. These morphologies are acquired gradually through development as the gut is patterned by tissue interactions, both molecular and mechanical in nature, involving all three germ layers. With a focus on midgut morphogenesis, we review work in the chick embryo demonstrating how these molecular signals and mechanical forces sculpt the developing gut tube into its mature form. In particular, we highlight two mechanisms by which the midgut increases its absorptive surface area: looping and villification. Additionally, we review the differentiation and patterning of the intestinal mesoderm into the layers of smooth muscle that mechanically drive peristalsis and the villification process itself. Where relevant, we discuss the mechanisms of chick midgut morphogenesis in the context of experimental data from other model systems.

Scaling Pattern to Variations in Size during Development of the Vertebrate Neural Tube.

Anatomical proportions are robustly maintained in individuals that vary enormously in size, both within a species and between members of related taxa. However, the mechanisms underlying scaling are still poorly understood. We have examined this phenomenon in the context of the patterning of the ventral neural tube in response to a gradient of the morphogen Sonic hedgehog (SHH) in the chick and zebra finch, two species that differ in size during the time of neural tube patterning. We find that scaling is achieved, at least in part, by altering the sensitivity of the target cells to SHH and appears to be achieved by modulating the ratio of the repressive and activating transcriptional regulators, GLI2 and GLI3. This mechanism contrasts with previous experimental and theoretical analyses of morphogenic scaling that have focused on compensatory changes in the morphogen gradient itself.

Bending gradients: how the intestinal stem cell gets its home.

We address the mechanism by which adult intestinal stem cells (ISCs) become localized to the base of each villus during embryonic development. We find that, early in gut development, proliferating progenitors expressing ISC markers are evenly distributed throughout the epithelium, in both the chick and mouse. However, as the villi form, the putative stem cells become restricted to the base of the villi. This shift in the localization is driven by mechanically influenced reciprocal signaling between the epithelium and underlying mesenchyme. Buckling forces physically distort the shape of the morphogenic field, causing local maxima of epithelial signals, in particular Shh, at the tip of each villus. This induces a suite of high-threshold response genes in the underlying mesenchyme to form a signaling center called the "villus cluster." Villus cluster signals, notably Bmp4, feed back on the overlying epithelium to ultimately restrict the stem cells to the base of each villus.

Role of mef2ca in developmental buffering of the zebrafish larval hyoid dermal skeleton.

Phenotypic robustness requires a process of developmental buffering that is largely not understood, but which can be disrupted by mutations. Here we show that in mef2ca(b1086) loss of function mutant embryos and early larvae, development of craniofacial hyoid bones, the opercle (Op) and branchiostegal ray (BR), becomes remarkably unstable; the large magnitude of the instability serves as a positive attribute to learn about features of this developmental buffering. The OpBR mutant phenotype variably includes bone expansion and fusion, Op duplication, and BR homeosis. Formation of a novel bone strut, or a bone bridge connecting the Op and BR together occurs frequently. We find no evidence that the phenotypic stability in the wild type is provided by redundancy between mef2ca and its co-ortholog mef2cb, or that it is related to the selector (homeotic) gene function of mef2ca. Changes in dorsal-ventral patterning of the hyoid arch also might not contribute to phenotypic instability in mutants. However, subsequent development of the bone lineage itself, including osteoblast differentiation and morphogenetic outgrowth, shows marked variation. Hence, steps along the developmental trajectory appear differentially sensitive to the loss of buffering, providing focus for the future study.

FishFace: interactive atlas of zebrafish craniofacial development at cellular resolution.

BACKGROUND: The vertebrate craniofacial skeleton may exhibit anatomical complexity and diversity, but its genesis and evolution can be understood through careful dissection of developmental programs at cellular resolution. Resources are lacking that include introductory overviews of skeletal anatomy coupled with descriptions of craniofacial development at cellular resolution. In addition to providing analytical guidelines for other studies, such an atlas would suggest cellular mechanisms underlying development. DESCRIPTION: We present the Fish Face Atlas, an online, 3D-interactive atlas of craniofacial development in the zebrafish Danio rerio. Alizarin red-stained skulls scanned by fluorescent optical projection tomography and segmented into individual elements provide a resource for understanding the 3D structure of the zebrafish craniofacial skeleton. These data provide the user an anatomical entry point to confocal images of Alizarin red-stained zebrafish with transgenically-labelled pharyngeal arch ectomesenchyme, chondrocytes, and osteoblasts, which illustrate the appearance, morphogenesis, and growth of the mandibular and hyoid cartilages and bones, as viewed in live, anesthetized zebrafish during embryonic and larval development. Confocal image stacks at high magnification during the same stages provide cellular detail and suggest developmental and evolutionary hypotheses. CONCLUSION: The FishFace Atlas is a novel learning tool for understanding craniofacial skeletal development, and can serve as a reference for a variety of studies, including comparative and mutational analyses.

fras1 shapes endodermal pouch 1 and stabilizes zebrafish pharyngeal skeletal development.

Lesions in the epithelially expressed human gene FRAS1 cause Fraser syndrome, a complex disease with variable symptoms, including facial deformities and conductive hearing loss. The developmental basis of facial defects in Fraser syndrome has not been elucidated. Here we show that zebrafish fras1 mutants exhibit defects in facial epithelia and facial skeleton. Specifically, fras1 mutants fail to generate a late-forming portion of pharyngeal pouch 1 (termed late-p1) and skeletal elements adjacent to late-p1 are disrupted. Transplantation studies indicate that fras1 acts in endoderm to ensure normal morphology of both skeleton and endoderm, consistent with well-established epithelial expression of fras1. Late-p1 formation is concurrent with facial skeletal morphogenesis, and some skeletal defects in fras1 mutants arise during late-p1 morphogenesis, indicating a temporal connection between late-p1 and skeletal morphogenesis. Furthermore, fras1 mutants often show prominent second arch skeletal fusions through space occupied by late-p1 in wild type. Whereas every fras1 mutant shows defects in late-p1 formation, skeletal defects are less penetrant and often vary in severity, even between the left and right sides of the same individual. We interpret the fluctuating asymmetry in fras1 mutant skeleton and the changes in fras1 mutant skeletal defects through time as indicators that skeletal formation is destabilized. We propose a model wherein fras1 prompts late-p1 formation and thereby stabilizes skeletal formation during zebrafish facial development. Similar mechanisms of stochastic developmental instability might also account for the high phenotypic variation observed in human FRAS1 patients.

Hedgehog-dependent proliferation drives modular growth during morphogenesis of a dermal bone.

In the developing skeleton, dermal bone morphogenesis includes the balanced proliferation, recruitment and differentiation of osteoblast precursors, yet how bones acquire unique morphologies is unknown. We show that Hedgehog (Hh) signaling mediates bone shaping during early morphogenesis of the opercle (Op), a well characterized dermal bone of the zebrafish craniofacial skeleton. ihha is specifically expressed in a local population of active osteoblasts along the principal growing edge of the bone. Mutational studies show that Hh signaling by this osteoblast population is both necessary and sufficient for full recruitment of pre-osteoblasts into the signaling population. Loss of ihha function results in locally reduced proliferation of pre-osteoblasts and consequent reductions in recruitment into the osteoblast pool, reduced bone edge length and reduced outgrowth. Conversely, hyperactive Hh signaling in ptch1 mutants causes opposite defects in proliferation and growth. Time-lapse microscopy of early Op morphogenesis using transgenically labeled osteoblasts demonstrates that ihha-dependent bone development is not only region specific, but also begins exactly at the onset of a second phase of morphogenesis, when the early bone begins to reshape into a more complex form. These features strongly support a hypothesis that dermal bone development is modular, with different gene sets functioning at specific times and locations to pattern growth. The Hh-dependent module is not limited to this second phase of bone growth: during later larval development, the Op is fused along the dysmorphic edge to adjacent dermal bones. Hence, patterning within a module may include adjacent regions of functionally related bones and might require that signaling pathways function over an extended period of development.