A Rapid Review of Interventions to Improve Care for People Who Are Medically Underserved with Multiple Sclerosis, Diabetic Retinopathy, and Lung Cancer.

In the United States, patients with chronic conditions experience disparities in health outcomes across the care continuum. Among patients with multiple sclerosis, diabetic retinopathy, and lung cancer, there is a lack of evidence summarizing interventions to improve care and decrease these disparities. The aim of this rapid literature review was to identify interventions among patients with these chronic conditions to improve health and reduce disparities in screening, diagnosis, access to treatment and specialists, adherence, and retention in care. Using structured search terms in PubMed and Web of Science, we completed a rapid review of studies published in the prior five years conducted in the United States on our subject of focus. We screened the retrieved articles for inclusion and extracted data using a standard spreadsheet. The data were synthesized across clinical conditions and summarized. Screening was the most common point in the care continuum with documented interventions. Most studies we identified addressed interventions for patients with lung cancer, with half as many studies identified for patients with diabetic retinopathy, and few studies identified for patients with multiple sclerosis. Almost two-thirds of the studies focused on patients who identify as Black, Indigenous, or people of color. Interventions with evidence evaluating implementation in multiple conditions included telemedicine, mobile clinics, and insurance subsidies, or expansion. Despite documented disparities and a focus on health equity, a paucity of evidence exists on interventions that improve health outcomes among patients who are medically underserved with multiple sclerosis, diabetic retinopathy, and lung cancer.

Estimating the US Baseline Distribution of Health Inequalities Across Race, Ethnicity, and Geography for Equity-Informative Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Information on how life expectancy, disability-free life expectancy, and quality-adjusted life expectancy varies across equity-relevant subgroups is required to conduct distributional cost-effectiveness analysis. These summary measures are not comprehensively available in the United States, given limitations in nationally representative data across racial and ethnic groups. METHODS: Through linkage of US national survey data sets and use of Bayesian models to address missing and suppressed mortality data, we estimate health outcomes across 5 racial and ethnic subgroups (non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native, non-Hispanic Asian and Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic black, non-Hispanic white, and Hispanic). Mortality, disability, and social determinant of health data were combined to estimate sex- and age-based outcomes for equity-relevant subgroups based on race and ethnicity, as well as county-level social vulnerability. RESULTS: Life expectancy, disability-free life expectancy, and quality-adjusted life expectancy at birth declined from 79.5, 69.4, and 64.3 years, respectively, among the 20% least socially vulnerable (best-off) counties to 76.8, 63.6, and 61.1 years, respectively, among the 20% most socially vulnerable (worst-off) counties. Considering differences across racial and ethnic subgroups, as well as geography, gaps between the best-off (Asian and Pacific Islander; 20% least socially vulnerable counties) and worst-off (American Indian/Alaska Native; 20% most socially vulnerable counties) subgroups were large (17.6 life-years, 20.9 disability-free life-years, and 18.0 quality-adjusted life-years) and increased with age. CONCLUSIONS: Existing disparities in health across geographies and racial and ethnic subgroups may lead to distributional differences in the impact of health interventions. Data from this study support routine estimation of equity effects in healthcare decision making, including distributional cost-effectiveness analysis.

Patient perspectives and use of copayment assistance during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Copay assistance programs provide financial assistance for patients to access medicines and may be one solution to addressing patient affordability, especially because of additional financial hardships due to the COVID-19 pandemic. These programs have been scrutinized by payers and policymakers, but there is little information on the patient perspective to inform these policy discussions. OBJECTIVE: To understand patients' perspectives and use of copay assistance during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: A nationwide cross-sectional online descriptive patient survey was administered to collect data from adult recent medication users and caregivers. Data on demographics, skipping/stopping medications, current/past/future use of copay assistance, perceptions of copay assistance, and alternative actions taken if copay assistance was unavailable were collected. Descriptive analysis was conducted across the total sample, with subgroup analysis between those using and not using specialty pharmacies conducted on select measures. Analyses were conducted using STATA version 14.2. RESULTS: The final sample consisted of 1,001 adults aged 18 years or older. Twenty-eight percent of respondents reported currently or previously using copay assistance, with use higher among specialty pharmacy users vs non-specialty pharmacy users (46% vs 15%, P < 0.01). Copay assistance programs were viewed positively by most respondents (> 70%), with the proportion who viewed them "somewhat or more positively" during the COVID-19 pandemic growing significantly more among specialty pharmacy users than among non-specialty pharmacy users (53% vs 24%, P < 0.01). Respondents using copay assistance programs indicated they would take on more debt and cut back in other areas as alternatives to copay assistance, if unavailable. The alternative actions differed by specialty pharmacy use, with specialty pharmacy users reporting being more likely to use savings/retirement funds to help cover the cost (44% vs 22%, P < 0.01) or switch insurance plans (36% vs 22%, P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Patients' positive perceptions of copay assistance programs have grown during the COVID-19 pandemic, and removing access to these programs may result in further debt and/or loss of savings for patients, especially for those using specialty medicines. Future patient-centric research is warranted and should be central to informing future policy discussions on the regulation of copay assistance programs. DISCLOSURES: W Wong and K Jinnett are employees of Genentech, Inc, and have stock in Roche (outside the submitted work). Research reported in this publication was supported by Genentech, Inc. Editorial services were provided by Esther Tazartes, MS, of Global Outcomes Group. These services were funded by Genentech, Inc.

Cardiovascular Health Research in the Workplace: A Workshop Report.

Heart disease and stroke are the first and fifth leading causes of death in the United States, respectively. Employers have a unique opportunity to promote cardiovascular health, because >60% of US adults are employed, and most spend half of their waking hours at work. Despite the scope of the opportunity, <1 in 5 businesses implement evidence-based, comprehensive workplace health programs, policies, and practices. Integrated, systems-based workplace health approaches that harness data science and technology may have the potential to reach more employees and be cost-effective for employers. To evaluate the role of the workplace in promoting cardiovascular health across the lifespan, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, and the American Heart Association convened a workshop on March 7, 2019, to share best practices, and to discuss current evidence and knowledge gaps, practical application, and dissemination of the evidence, and the need for innovation in workplace health research and practice. This report presents the broad themes discussed at the workshop and considerations for promoting worker cardiovascular health, including opportunities for future research.

Insights into the Role of Employers Supporting Obesity Management in People with Obesity: Results of the National ACTION Study.

Lack of both awareness and application of evidence-based principles for obesity care for people with obesity (PwO) limit employers' role in supporting effective obesity management among employees with obesity (EwO). The aim of the ACTION (Awareness, Care, and Treatment In Obesity maNagement) study was to explore the current state of employer wellness programs related to obesity management, evaluate the impact of obesity in the workplace, assess attitudes regarding the role of employers in managing obesity, and identify challenges in implementing workplace wellness programs as perceived by employer representatives (ERs) and EwO. An online survey was conducted among ERs and adult PwO (BMI ≥30 by self-reported height and weight) using a cross-sectional, US-based stratified sample design. There were 153 ER respondents and 3008 adult PwO respondents; 1478 PwO were employed full-time, part-time, or were self-employed. ERs recognize the seriousness of obesity and its negative impact on work productivity; however, wellness programs tend to fall short of addressing specific needs of EwO, evidenced by low participation and success rates reported by EwO. This study highlights the need for programs that address the complexities of obesity and the specific needs of EwO, which currently are inadequately addressed according to EwO.

The Impact of Worksite Wellness Programs by Size of Business: A 3-Year Longitudinal Study of Participation, Health Benefits, Absenteeism, and Presenteeism.

Objective: Worksite wellness programs (WWP) may positively impact employee health, medical expenditures, absenteeism, and presenteeism. However, there has been little research to assess the benefits of WWP in small businesses. The purpose of this study is to prospectively evaluate changes in health, absenteeism, and presenteeism for employees who participated in a WWP. Methods: We conducted an observational, 3-year cohort study of 5766 employees from 314 businesses of differing sizes. We followed two cohorts of employees, who completed at least two annual health risk assessments (HRA) between May 2010 and December 2014. Changes from baseline to the first and second follow-up periods were assessed for chronic and non-chronic health conditions, absenteeism, and presenteeism. Results: Small business employees were more likely to participate in the WWP than were employees from large businesses. Changes in chronic and non-chronic health conditions varied by size of business, with small business employees showing improvements in stress, overall health, depression, smoking status, vegetable and fruit consumption, and physical activity, and in their perceptions of job health culture. In contrast, large business employees experienced improvements in stress, vegetable consumption, and alcohol use. No changes in absenteeism or presenteeism were observed. Conclusions: Small businesses achieve higher employee participation rates and more health improvements when compared to employees from large employers. Findings suggest that small businesses may gain the most from a WWP.

Reoccurring Injury, Chronic Health Conditions, and Behavioral Health: Gender Differences in the Causes of Workers' Compensation Claims.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was o examine how work and nonwork health-related factors contribute to workers' compensation (WC) claims by gender. METHODS: Workers (N = 16,926) were enrolled in the Pinnacol Assurance Health Risk Management study, a multiyear, longitudinal research program assessing small and medium-sized enterprises in Colorado. Hypotheses were tested using gender-stratified logistic regression models. RESULTS: For both women and men, having incurred a prior WC claim increased the odds of a future claim. The combination of incurring a prior claim and having metabolic health conditions resulted in lower odds of a future claim. Behavioral health risk factors increased the odds of having a claim more so among women than among men. CONCLUSION: This study provides data to support multifactorial injury theories, and the need for injury prevention efforts that consider workplace conditions as well as worker health.

Perceptions of Barriers to Effective Obesity Care: Results from the National ACTION Study.

OBJECTIVE: ACTION (Awareness, Care, and Treatment in Obesity maNagement) examined obesity-related perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors among people with obesity (PwO), health care providers (HCPs), and employer representatives (ERs). METHODS: A total of 3,008 adult PwO (BMI ≥ 30 by self-reported height and weight), 606 HCPs, and 153 ERs completed surveys in a cross-sectional design. RESULTS: Despite several weight loss (WL) attempts, only 23% of PwO reported 10% WL during the previous 3 years. Many PwO (65%) recognized obesity as a disease, but only 54% worried their weight may affect future health. Most PwO (82%) felt "completely" responsible for WL; 72% of HCPs felt responsible for contributing to WL efforts; few ERs (18%) felt even partially responsible. Only 50% of PwO saw themselves as "obese," and 55% reported receiving a formal diagnosis of obesity. Despite HCPs' reported comfort with weight-related conversations, time constraints deprioritized these efforts. Only 24% of PwO had a scheduled follow-up to initial weight-related conversations. Few PwO (17%) perceived employer-sponsored wellness offerings as helpful in supporting WL. CONCLUSIONS: Although generally perceived as a disease, obesity is not commonly treated as such. Divergence in perceptions and attitudes potentially hinders better management. This study highlights inconsistent understanding of the impact of obesity and need for both self-directed and medical management.

Chronic Conditions, Workplace Safety, And Job Demands Contribute To Absenteeism And Job Performance.

An aging workforce, increased prevalence of chronic health conditions, and the potential for longer working lives have both societal and economic implications. We analyzed the combined impact of workplace safety, employee health, and job demands (work task difficulty) on worker absence and job performance. The study sample consisted of 16,926 employees who participated in a worksite wellness program offered by a workers' compensation insurer to their employers-314 large, midsize, and small businesses in Colorado across multiple industries. We found that both workplace safety and employees' chronic health conditions contributed to absenteeism and job performance, but their impact was influenced by the physical and cognitive difficulty of the job. If employers want to reduce health-related productivity losses, they should take an integrated approach to mitigate job-related injuries, promote employee health, and improve the fit between a worker's duties and abilities.

Health risk factors as predictors of workers' compensation claim occurrence and cost.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine the predictive relationships between employee health risk factors (HRFs) and workers' compensation (WC) claim occurrence and costs. METHODS: Logistic regression and generalised linear models were used to estimate the predictive association between HRFs and claim occurrence and cost among a cohort of 16 926 employees from 314 large, medium and small businesses across multiple industries. First, unadjusted (HRFs only) models were estimated, and second, adjusted (HRFs plus demographic and work organisation variables) were estimated. RESULTS: Unadjusted models demonstrated that several HRFs were predictive of WC claim occurrence and cost. After adjusting for demographic and work organisation differences between employees, many of the relationships previously established did not achieve statistical significance. Stress was the only HRF to display a consistent relationship with claim occurrence, though the type of stress mattered. Stress at work was marginally predictive of a higher odds of incurring a WC claim (p<0.10). Stress at home and stress over finances were predictive of higher and lower costs of claims, respectively (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The unadjusted model results indicate that HRFs are predictive of future WC claims. However, the disparate findings between unadjusted and adjusted models indicate that future research is needed to examine the multilevel relationship between employee demographics, organisational factors, HRFs and WC claims.

Predicting the impact of chronic health conditions on workplace productivity and accidents: results from two US Department of Energy national laboratories.

OBJECTIVE: Examine associations of chronic health conditions on workplace productivity and accidents among US Department of Energy employees. METHODS: The Health and Work Performance Questionnaire-Select was administered to a random sample of two Department of Energy national laboratory employees (46% response rate; N = 1854). RESULTS: The majority (87.4%) reported having one or more chronic health conditions, with 43.4% reporting four or more conditions. A population-attributable risk proportions analysis suggests improvements of 4.5% in absenteeism, 5.1% in presenteeism, 8.9% in productivity, and 77% of accidents by reducing the number of conditions by one level. Depression was the only health condition associated with all four outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that chronic conditions in this workforce are prevalent and costly. Efforts to prevent or reduce condition comorbidity among employees with multiple conditions can significantly reduce costs and workplace accident rates.

Implementation of a worksite wellness program targeting small businesses: the Pinnacol Assurance health risk management study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess small business adoption and need for a worksite wellness program in a longitudinal study of health risks, productivity, workers' compensation rates, and claims costs. METHODS: Health risk assessment data from 6507 employees in 260 companies were examined. Employer and employee data are reported as frequencies, with means and standard deviations reported when applicable. RESULTS: Of the 260 companies enrolled in the health risk management program, 71% continued more than 1 year, with 97% reporting that worker wellness improves worker safety. Of 6507 participating employees, 34.3% were overweight and 25.6% obese. Approximately one in five participants reported depression. Potentially modifiable conditions affecting 15% or more of enrollees include chronic fatigue, sleeping problems, headaches, arthritis, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: Small businesses are a suitable target for the introduction of health promotion programs.

Employees' work responses to episodes of illness: evidence from the American time use survey.

OBJECTIVE: To better understand presenteeism and absenteeism on the basis of the choices employees make about working when they experience episodes of illness. METHODS: We examine nationally representative data to describe employees' work responses to episodes of illness and how different leave policies contribute to their decisions. RESULTS: Illness episodes typically result in absence from work rather than working a normal or adjusted routine. Employees adjust their routine when ill primarily to save leave or because they have too much work. Paid sick leave and scheduling flexibility influence the likelihood of absence in different ways. CONCLUSIONS: Although flexibility to adjust work routines can reduce absences, it is not known to what extent productivity suffers when this occurs. Measures of both short- and long-term presenteeism are necessary to understand the full productivity costs of illness in the workforce.

Health and productivity as a business strategy: a multiemployer study.

OBJECTIVE: To explore methodological refinements in measuring health-related lost productivity and to assess the business implications of a full-cost approach to managing health. METHODS: Health-related lost productivity was measured among 10 employers with a total of 51,648 employee respondents using the Health and Work Performance Questionnaire combined with 1,134,281 medical and pharmacy claims. Regression analyses were used to estimate the associations of health conditions with absenteeism and presenteeism using a range of models. RESULTS: Health-related productivity costs are significantly greater than medical and pharmacy costs alone (on average 2.3 to 1). Chronic conditions such as depression/anxiety, obesity, arthritis, and back/neck pain are especially important causes of productivity loss. Comorbidities have significant non-additive effects on both absenteeism and presenteeism. Executives/Managers experience as much or more monetized productivity loss from depression and back pain as Laborers/Operators. Testimonials are reported from participating companies on how the study helped shape their corporate health strategies. CONCLUSIONS: A strong link exists between health and productivity. Integrating productivity data with health data can help employers develop effective workplace health human capital investment strategies. More research is needed to understand the impacts of comorbidity and to evaluate the cost effectiveness of health and productivity interventions from an employer perspective.

Team leadership and patient outcomes in US psychiatric treatment settings.

Previous studies suggest that psychiatric patients mirror the behaviors of the staff members who treat them, but there is little empirical evidence about how staff dynamics affect patients over time. The goals of this study were to examine associations between: (1) team leader discipline and mutual respect among treatment team members; and (2) mutual respect among team members and improvements in patient quality of life. Two models were tested on data from psychiatric treatment teams within the US Veterans Administration. The first examined associations between the discipline of each team's emergent leader and the level of mutual respect among that team's members. The second model tested associations between mutual respect among staff and changes over time in patients' quality of life. The subjects for model 1 were psychiatric staff members (n=785) whose responses were aggregated for team-level analyses (n=78). Mutual respect was highest in social worker-led teams and lowest in physician-led teams. The subjects for model 2 were 1,638 seriously mentally ill patients in 44 of the units examined in the first model. When mutual respect among staff was greater, patients improved more over time in their satisfaction with the quality of their housing, relations with families, social life, and finances. Together, these analyses imply that mutual respect may improve patient outcomes and that leadership by some disciplines may facilitate such dynamics. In general, leaders may consider learning from other disciplines' strengths to improve their impact.

Cross-functional team processes and patient functional improvement.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that higher levels of participation and functioning in cross-functional psychiatric treatment teams will be related to improved patient outcomes. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING: Primary data were collected during the period 1992-1999. The study was conducted in 40 teams within units treating seriously mentally ill patients in 16 Veterans Affairs hospitals across the U.S. STUDY DESIGN: A longitudinal, multilevel analysis assessed the relationship between individual- and team-level variables and patients' ability to perform activities of daily living (ADL) over time. Team data were collected in 1992, 1994, and 1995. The number of times patient data were collected was dependent on the length of time the patient was treated and varied from 1 to 14 between 1992 and 1999. Key variables included: patients' ADL scores (the dependent variable); measures of team participation and team functioning; the number of days from baseline on which a patient's ADLs were assessed; and several control variables. DATA COLLECTION METHODS: Team data were obtained via self-administered questionnaires distributed to staff on the study teams. Additional team data were obtained via questionnaires completed by unit directors contemporaneously with the staff survey. Patient data were collected by trained clinicians at regular intervals using a standard assessment instrument. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Results indicated that patients treated in teams with higher levels of staff participation experienced greater improvement in ADL over time. No differences in ADL change were noted for patients treated in teams with higher levels of team functioning. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support our premise that team process has important implications for patient outcomes. The results suggest that the level of participation by the team as a whole may be a more important process attribute, in terms of patient improvements in ADLs, than the team's smooth functioning. These findings indicate the potential appropriateness of managerial interventions to encourage member investment in team processes.

How mental health providers spend their time: a survey of 10 Veterans Health Administration mental health services.

BACKGROUND: Allocation of provider time across clinical, administrative, educational, and research activities may influence job satisfaction, productivity, and quality of care, yet we know little about what determines time allocation. AIMS: To investigate factors associated with time allocation, we surveyed all mental health providers in one Veterans Health Administration (VHA) network. We hypothesized that both facility characteristics (academic affiliation, type of organization of services, serving as a hub for treatment of severely mentally ill, facility size) and individual provider characteristics (discipline, length of time in job, having an academic appointment) would influence time allocation. METHODS: Eligible providers were psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, physician assistants, registered or licensed practical nurses or other providers (psychology technicians, addiction therapists, nursing assistants, rehabilitation, recreational, occupational therapists) who were providing care in mental health services. A brief self-report survey was collected from all eligible providers at ten VHA facilities in late 1998 (N = 997). Data regarding facility characteristics were obtained by site visits and interviews with managers. Multilevel modeling was used to examine factors associated with three dependent variables: (i) total time allocation by activity (clinical, administrative, educational, research); (ii) clinical time allocation by treatment setting (inpatient vs. outpatient); and (iii) clinical time allocation by type of care (mental vs. physical). Licensed Practical Nurses (LPNs) were used as the reference group for all analyses because LPNs were expected to spend the majority of their time on clinical activities. RESULTS: Overall, providers spent most of their time on clinical activities (77%), followed by administrative (11%), and educational (10%). Surprisingly, research activities accounted for only 2% of their time. Multilevel analysis indicated none of the facility-level variables were significant in explaining facility variance in time allocation, but individual characteristics were associated with time allocation. The model for predicting time allocation by inpatient or outpatient settings explained 16-18% of the variance in the dependent variable. In all models, provider discipline and length of time in job played an important role. Having an academic appointment was important only in the model examining total time allocation by activity type. DISCUSSION: These simple models explained only a small amount of variance in the three dependent variables which were intended to capture issues related to time allocation; and the low number of facilities limited our power to examine effects of facility-level factors. Our models performed better in predicting allocation of clinical time to treatment setting and type of treatment than in predicting overall time allocation. Discipline and length of time in job were significant across all models. In contrast, having an academic appointment was associated with allocating significantly less time to clinical activities and more time to administrative activities but not to any significant difference in time spent in either research or education. IMPLICATIONS: While a gold standard of optimal time allocation does not exist, it is striking that research, a stated mission of the VHA, accounted for so little of providers' time. The lack of involvement of clinicians in research has implications for recruitment and retention of high-quality mental health providers in this network and for the education of future providers. Without involvement of clinicians, research conducted in the network by nonclinicians may be less relevant to "real-world" clinical issues. Reductions of funds available to mental health, coupled with increased clinical demands, may have prompted this pattern of time allocation, and these findings attest to the challenges faced by large institutions that are charged with balancing many often seemingly competing missions.

Predictors of contact with public service sectors among homeless adults with and without alcohol and other drug disorders.

OBJECTIVE: Homeless persons with alcohol and other drug (AOD) disorders face multiple problems that go beyond their AOD use. As a consequence, they commonly access services in multiple sectors in addition to the AOD treatment system. This study examined the predictors of contact with agencies in the health, mental health, social welfare and criminal justice sectors by AOD status among a probability sample of homeless adults in Houston, Texas. METHOD: Cross-sectional data were collected from a multistage random sample of 797 homeless adults (579 men), age 18 or older, who were living in shelters and on the streets of Houston in 1996. Structured face-to-face interviews provided screening diagnoses for AOD disorders, self-report data on AOD treatment use and candidate predictors of treatment use. Service use was tracked retrospectively through administrative data obtained from 10 federal, state, county and municipal agencies that provide finding for physical and mental health services and AOD treatment, as well as emergency income; we also tracked criminal justice contacts. Logistic regression analyses were stratified by AOD status. RESULTS: Adjusting for eligibility factors, key aspects of need were significant predictors of any utilization among those without an AOD problem, but not for those with an AOD problem. For those with AOD disorders, contact with one sector was not predictive of contact with other sectors. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that AOD disorders hinder utilization of public sector services by homeless persons. These disorders may be masking need or otherwise acting as a barrier to accessing treatment and support.

Organizational determinants of psychosocial treatment activity of providers in Va mental health facilities.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the determinants of level and intensity of psychosocial treatment activity among staff who deliver services to the severely and mentally ill. METHODS: The study sample consisted of 769 treatment providers working in 77 units in 29 VA mental health facilities. Level of psychosocial care was measured as the number of patient contacts and total hours spent in psychosocial care over a 1 week period. Intensity of psychosocial care was measured as the average time per patient contact. We used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to examine the association between level and intensity of care and three categories of determinants - individual provider attributes, work characteristics and treatment setting characteristics. RESULTS: Providers' occupation is related to both the level and intensity of care. Providers with administrative responsibilities also have fewer patient contacts and lower intensity of such contacts. Providers who perceived their pay and benefits more positively had fewer patient contacts and less intensive patient contacts. Positive relationships with patients and providers were also associated with greater levels and intensity of psychosocial treatment activity among providers. Finally, statistically significant differences in psychosocial treatment activity among units were identified although such differences are not attributable to unit size, patient cohort severity or unit workload. CONCLUSIONS: Level and intensity of psychosocial treatment activity vary systematically by individual attributes of providers, characteristics of the work they perform and attributes of the treatment setting. These factors may provide the basis for designing interventions to modify provider behavior in a manner consistent with emerging financial pressures and treatment modalities for the seriously mentally ill.