Intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor injections in pregnancy and breastfeeding: a case series and systematic review of the literature.

INTRODUCTION: Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) agents may occasionally need to be considered for sight-threatening macular pathology in pregnant and breastfeeding women. This is controversial due to the dearth of data on systemic side effects for mother and child. We aimed to expand the evidence base to inform management. METHODS: Retrospective case series of pregnant and breastfeeding women treated with intravitreal anti-VEGF injections at Oxford Eye Hospital between January 2015 and December 2022. In addition, we conducted a systematic review and combined eligible cases in a narrative synthesis. RESULTS: We treated six pregnant women with anti-VEGF for diabetic macular oedema(DMO) (n = 5) or choroidal neovascularisation (CNV) (n = 1). Four received ranibizumab whilst two (not known to be pregnant) received aflibercept. Patients known to be pregnant underwent counselling by an obstetric physician. Five pregnancies resulted in live births. Combining our cases with those previously published, treatment of 41 pregnant women (42 pregnancies) are reported. Indications for treatment included CNV (n = 28/41,68%), DMO (n = 7/41,17%) and proliferative diabetic retinopathy (n = 6/41,15%). Bevacizumab (n = 22/41,54%) and ranibizumab (n = 17/41,41%) were given more frequently than aflibercept (n = 2/41,5%). Many (n = 16/41,40%) were unaware of their pregnancy when treated. Most pregnancies resulted in live births (n = 34/42,81%). First trimester miscarriages (n = 5/42,12%) and stillbirths (n = 3/42,7%) mostly occurred in women with significant risk factors. CONCLUSION: Intravitreal anti-VEGF injections may not necessarily compromise obstetric outcomes, although clear associations cannot be drawn due to small numbers and confounders from high rates of first trimester miscarriages in general and inherently high-risk pregnancies. It may be worth considering routinely investigating pregnancy and breastfeeding status in women of childbearing age prior to each injection, as part of anti-VEGF treatment protocols.

A prospective study of the incidence, associations and outcomes of ocular surface squamous neoplasia in the United Kingdom.

PURPOSE: To describe the incidence, associations and outcomes of ocular surface squamous neoplasia (OSSN) in the United Kingdom. METHODS: Prospective, observational study of every new case of OSSN reported via the British Ophthalmological Surveillance Unit reporting scheme over a 12-month period. Cases were followed up for 12 months. RESULTS: The reported incidence of OSSN was 0.53 cases/million/year (conjunctival intraepithelial neoplasia: 0.43 cases/million/year; squamous cell carcinoma: 0.08 cases/million/year). Eighty-five per cent of affected patients were male, 97% were Caucasian, and the mean age at presentation was 67.9 (±12.8) years. Information on potential underlying risk factors was frequently unknown. The most commonly affected sites were the limbus and the nasal and temporal bulbar conjunctivae. Most patients presented with a visual acuity of 6/9 or better, without symptoms of pain or visual loss. Excision (with or without additional treatment) was the most common first-line treatment and interferon (with or without additional treatment) was the most common second-line treatment, although management varied widely. Complications of treatment were rare but occasionally severe. Recurrence within 12 months of follow-up occurred in at least 6% of patients. CONCLUSION: Although subject to reporting bias, these data suggest that there has not been a significant change in the incidence of OSSN in the United Kingdom, or its demographic profile, since 1996. The broad range of management approaches identified in this study reflect a lack of consensus as to the optimal referral and treatment pathways.

Incremental cost-effectiveness of screening and laser treatment for diabetic retinopathy and macular edema in Malawi.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the economic impact of introducing targeted screening and laser photocoagulation treatment for sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy and macular edema in a setting with no previous screening or laser treatment for diabetic retinopathy in sub-Saharan Africa. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cohort Markov model was built to compare combined targeted screening and laser treatment for patients with sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy and macular edema against no intervention. Primary outcomes were incremental cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained and per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted. Primary data were collected on 357 participants from the Malawi Diabetic Retinopathy Study, a prospective, observational cohort study. Multiple scenarios were explored and a probabilistic sensitivity analysis was performed. RESULTS: In the base case (age: 50 years, service utilization rate: 80%), the cost of the intervention and the years of severe visual impairment averted per patient screened were $209 and 2.2 years respectively. Applying the World Health Organization threshold of cost-effectiveness for Malawi ($679), the base case was cost-effective when QALYs were used ($400 per QALY gained) but not when DALYs were used ($766 per DALY averted). The intervention was more cost-effective when it targeted younger patients (age: 30 years) and less cost-effective when the utilization rate was lowered to 50%. CONCLUSIONS: Annual photographic screening of diabetic patients attending medical diabetes clinics in Malawi, with the provision of laser treatment for those with sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy and macular edema, appears to be cost-effective in terms of QALYs gained, in our base case scenario. Cost-effectiveness improves if services are utilized more intensively and extended to younger patients.

The period effect in the prevalence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, gross proteinuria, and peripheral neuropathy in type 1 diabetes: A longitudinal cohort study.

AIMS: To investigate whether, for a specific duration of type 1 diabetes, there is a significant change in the prevalence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, gross proteinuria and peripheral neuropathy in those more recently diagnosed with diabetes (a period effect), in the Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Where present, to determine how common risk factors for diabetic complications might be associated with it, and what might be driving it. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Longitudinal cohort study with seven examination phases between 1980 and 2014. Multivariate logistic regression models and ordinal parameterization were used to test for and evaluate any period effect. RESULTS: There is a period effect in the prevalence of gross proteinuria and peripheral neuropathy (decreasing), as seen with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (p < 0.001). Adjusting for changing levels of common risk factors attenuates the period effect, particularly for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. For gross proteinuria and peripheral neuropathy, however there is a persistent period effect in spite of adjusting for the major risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: There are period effects in the prevalence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, gross proteinuria and peripheral neuropathy that cannot be fully explained by changes in common risk factors for complications of type 1 diabetes in this cohort. The role of other potential confounders warrants further exploration.

Intravitreal pegaptanib for the treatment of ischemic diabetic macular edema.

PURPOSE: Pegaptanib has been shown to be effective in treating diabetic macular edema (DME). In the original Phase II/III trial, however, patients with macular ischemia were excluded. In this study, we treated patients with ischemic DME. METHODS: Macular ischemia was defined as a 30% increase in the area of the foveal avascular zone (FAZ) at 45 seconds on fundus fluorescein angiography. In addition, the participants had diffuse foveal-involving DME with a central subfield thickness (CST) of >300 µm on spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Five intravitreal pegaptanib injections were given 6 weeks apart. The final study visit was 6 weeks after the fifth injection. The primary outcome was change in the size of FAZ. Secondary outcomes were change in best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and the change in CST. RESULTS: Thirty participants were enrolled. Three were unable to complete the full course of treatment. Their outcomes were carried forward for the first part of this analysis. There was no statistically significant change in the mean size of the FAZ from baseline to the final visit. Subclassifying participants as those with minimal/moderate ischemia (16 participants, FAZ area <1,000 pixels) and those with more severe ischemia (14 participants, FAZ area >1,000 pixels) also showed no statistically significant change in the mean area of the FAZ. On average, BCVA increased and CST decreased from baseline to the final visit, but these changes were not statistically significant. Using per protocol analysis on those participants who completed the full course of treatment, the mean BCVA increased from 49.2 to 53.9 letters (P=0.046). CONCLUSION: In this study, intravitreal injection of pegaptanib did not significantly alter the size of the FAZ in participants with varying degrees of ischemic DME. There was, however, a significant improvement in mean BCVA in those who completed the treatment course.

Managing antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs in patients undergoing elective ophthalmic surgery.

The management of antiplatelet and anticoagulant treatment can be challenging for the ophthalmic surgeon with the risk of impaired surgical view or potentially sight-threatening haemorrhage. With the advent of newer medications and the expanding usage of these drugs, there is a need for up-to-date guidance on the subject. This paper describes the current use of modern antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs in the UK, and reviews the evidence of such treatments in the context of ophthalmic surgery. A multidisciplinary approach has been used to develop a guideline for the management of antiplatelet and anticoagulation treatment in elective ophthalmic surgery. Specifically, guidance is provided on when and how to stop antiplatelet and anticoagulant treatment and, importantly, when to seek specialist medical advice.

Medical management for the prevention and treatment of diabetic macular edema.

Recent clinical trials have changed the management paradigm for diabetic macular edema (DME). There is an urgent need to identify the most effective ways of preventing retinopathy or intervening at an early, asymptomatic stage in order to preserve vision. The rise in the incidence of diabetes is a serious public health concern. Grading and screening programmes help to identify sight threatening diabetic retinopathy in the community early and facilitate timely referral to an ophthalmologist. Systemic therapies for DME target the key modifiable risk factors: metabolic and blood pressure control. There may also be a role for modification of the renin-angiotensin system and for lipid lowering agents. Improved glycemic and blood pressure control remain the most effective ways of reducing morbidity from DME. Fenofibrate also has beneficial effects, but the mechanism for this remains unclear. Multiple new treatments are in the pipeline, and these are expected to change our approach to DME for the first time in 30 years.

High prevalence of sleep disordered breathing in patients with diabetic macular edema.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic retinopathy is more common and severe in patients with sleep disordered breathing (SDB). This study aimed to establish whether this is also true for patients with diabetic clinically significant macular edema (CSME). It is hypothesized that SDB, through intermittent hypoxia and blood pressure oscillations, might provoke worsening of CSME. METHODS: Patients with CSME had a home sleep study (ApneaLink; ResMed) to identify SDB. These results were compared with relevant control populations. Macular thickness was measured using optical coherence tomography, and retinal photographs were graded to assess the severity of retinopathy. RESULTS: Eighty of 195 patients (40 men) consented, with average age of 64.7 (11.7) years, neck circumference of 40.4 (5.4) cm, body mass index of 30.2 (6.2) kg/m2, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) 7.8% (1.4%) [62 (8.0) mmol/mol], and Epworth sleepiness scale of 7.4 (4.8). Overall, 54% had an oxygen desaturation index ≥ 10, and 31% had an apnea-hypopnea index ≥ 15. This SDB prevalence is probably higher than would be expected from the available matched control data. Those with SDB were not sleepier, but they were older and more obese. No significant relationship was identified between the degree of macular thickness and the severity of SDB. CONCLUSION: Individuals with CSME have a high prevalence of SDB. Sleep disordered breathing may contribute to the pathophysiology of CSME, but the mechanism remains unclear. Given the high prevalence, retinal specialists should perhaps consider a diagnosis of SDB in patients with CSME.

Visual improvement following continuous positive airway pressure therapy in diabetic subjects with clinically significant macular oedema and obstructive sleep apnoea: proof of principle study.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular oedema are more prevalent in patients with coexistent obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). OBJECTIVES: We assessed if treatment of OSA with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) might improve visual acuity (VA). METHODS: A total of 35 patients with clinically significant macular oedema (CSMO) and OSA [oxygen desaturation index (ODI) ≥10 or apnoea-hypopnoea index (AHI) ≥15] were identified and agreed to be studied. VA (expressed as the logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution, logMAR), macular thickness, fundal photographs, glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) and rhodopsin mRNA were measured twice at baseline and at 3 and 6 months post-CPAP. Fluorescein angiography and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) were obtained once at baseline and at 6 months. RESULTS: Three patients withdrew before the first trial visit. Thus, a total of 32 patients (17 males) entered the study, and 4 subsequently withdrew; thus 28 completed 6 months of follow-up. Baseline characteristics of the subjects were as follows [mean (SD or inter-quartile range)]: age 66.2 (7.1) years, body mass index 31.7 (6.3), HbA1c 7.4% (1.44) [57.1 (15.7) mmol/mol], AHI 16.5 (11-25), ODI 16.0 (12-25), ESS 6.5 (4.0-12.0) and duration of diabetes 9.5 years (5.0-16.5). Participants were divided into 13 high and 15 low CPAP compliers (≥ and <2.5 h/night over the 6 months, respectively). At 6 months, the adjusted treatment effect on VA of high compliance versus low compliance was 0.11 (95% confidence interval 0.21 to -0.002; p = 0.047), equivalent to a one-line improvement on the logMAR chart. There was no significant improvement in macular oedema or fundal photographs. CONCLUSIONS: This hypothesis-generating, uncontrolled study suggests that ≥2.5 h/night CPAP usage over 6 months in individuals with CSMO and OSA may be associated with improvement in VA. This provides justification for a randomised controlled trial of CPAP therapy in such patients.